**6. Status of agrochemicals in open market**

The survey of farmers–based agrochemicals stores showed the presence of seventeen (17) active ingredients common in the open market. A total of eighteen (18) trade names; Weed Crusher, Parae Force, Weed Cut, Grass Cutter, Touch Down, Clear Weed, Force Up, Drysate, Round-Up, Sunsate, Cyperthrone, Vestamine, Relimine, Amino Force, Amino Force Granular, Guard Force, Gramaxone and Meta Force were herbicides, thirteen (13) trade names; Super Care, Cyper Force, Cyper-DiForce, Flush Out, Termifos, Termiclor, Pest Off, Rid-Off, LaraForce, Magic Force, Knock Off, DD-Force and Iron Force were insecticides and nine (9) trade names; Fungi Care, Confidor, Storm Force, ImiForce, Dime Force, Fungus Force, ForceLet, Z-Force, and Zeb-Care were fungicides. No record of nematicides or any agrochemicals against parasitic pest plants were found in the study geographies. These agrochemicals were also dominated by herbicides which were 42.67% on average, the insecticides were 35.0% of the stocks while only 25.5% of agrochemicals across study geographies were fungicides (**Tables 1–3**). This information implied that pesticides used in the geographies were mostly for weed management and insect pests' control both for agricultural and domestic purposes. The commonly used active ingredients by the indication of sales from the selected geographies showed Paraquat dichloride, Glyphosate, Permethrin + pyriproxyfen, Dimethylamine salt, Cypermethrin, Chlorpyrifos, Dichlorvos, Lambda-cyhalothrin, 2,2-dichlorovinyl Dimethyl phosphate, Hexaconazole, Imidacloprid, Dimethoate, Nicosulfuron, Profenofos + cypermethrin, S-metolachlor, Carbendazim, and Mancozeb. The common active ingredients cut across varied pesticides types across the geographies.

**Table 1** showed that geography I was dominated by herbicides with 45%, 36% insecticides, and only 27% were fungicides. Targeted crops were mostly grains, legumes, vegetables, a few tubers, fruits, and tree crops.

Either one or two of the selected geographies had Paraquat dichloride, Glyphosate, Cypermethrin, Dichlorvos, Lambda-cyhalothrin, Imidacloprid, and Dimethoate common to them while Glyphosate and Cypermethrin are most frequent on sale across all the geographies surveyed. These active ingredients were variedly targeted


#### **Table 1.**

*Active ingredients in Geography I and Targeted crop(s).*

*Toxicity Status and Risks of Common Active Ingredients in Open Markets DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104409*


#### **Table 2.**

*Active ingredients in Geography II and Targeted crop(s).*


#### **Table 3.**

*Active ingredients in Geography III and Targeted crop(s).*

to manage weeds, insects, and pathogens in grains, legumes, nuts, tubers (root and stem), fruits and vegetables, and tree crops (**Tables 1–3**).

The presence of insecticides was higher in geography II showing 44% occurrence, the fungicides were only 22% while herbicides showed 33% of the agrochemicals in the open market and these were targeted against varied crop types, for example, corms, vegetables, fruits, grains, and some tree crops (**Table 2**).

However, the report of geography III as shown in **Table 3** indicated that only 12.5% of agrochemicals were fungicide which was the least across the selected geographies and likewise was the 25% insecticides but herbicide occurrence was highest (50%) of the agrochemical in all the geographies (**Table 3**).

## **7. Toxicity of active ingredients in open market**

The toxicity analysis of the active ingredients commonly on sale in the open market was based on recorded cases of pesticide active ingredients and formulations that have shown a high incidence of severe or irreversible adverse effects on human health or the environment, in accordance with the recommendation of the standard organizations and Pesticide Action Network International list of highly hazardous pesticide (PAN-HHP).



*Toxicity Status and Risks of Common Active Ingredients in Open Markets DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104409*


#### **Table 4.**

*Pesticides hazardous nature and toxicity status.*

The hazard criteria of the active ingredients were grouped into—acute toxicity, long-term health effects, environmental toxicity, and international regulations (global pesticiderelated conventions). The pesticides grouping, hazard, and toxicity status (**Table 4**) were the recommendations of globally harmonized system of classification and labeling of chemicals (GHS), World Health Organization (WHO) recommended classification of pesticides by hazard, the international agency for research on cancer (IARC), U.S. environmental protection agency (U.S. EPA), and European Union categorization of endocrine disruptors. The recommendation of these organizations was benchmarked

by the 4C Association, Bonsucro (Better Sugar Cane Initiative), Better Cotton Initiative (BCI), Fairtrade International, FSC, RSB, SAN (Sustainable Agriculture Network), and UTZ.

Glyphosate, herbicide, and very common active ingredient are used for the management of weeds both in agriculture and domestically. The active ingredient is classified as highly restricted for use, with mandatory risk-specific mitigation measures. The active ingredient is prohibited, identified as hazardous and its use should be extremely cautious and minimized. Di-methylamine (2,4 dimethylamine salt) was found to be commonly used by growers and the public in weed management but no record of this active ingredient was found in the databases of EU, Pesticide Action Network International, and other international standard organizations.

Nicosulfuron is an approved active ingredient for the management of weeds but with the environmental hazard of being very persistent in water/sediment. Profenofos + cypermethrin, an insecticide combination is restricted, to be used with extreme caution, shows high toxicity to honey bees and high aquatic toxicity according to FSC and Fairtrade. Another approved herbicide is S-metolachlor although recommended for restricted use and mandatory risk-specific mitigation measures to be taken and has aquatic risk according to RA, SAN.
