**5.5 Nutritional qualities**

Many of the local vegetables are underutilized due to inadequate information on their potentials to nourish the body with nutrients [147]. High utilization and consumption of vegetables is crucial in alleviating universal incidence of nutritional deficiencies [148]. Chemical analysis has shown that the leaves of *C. pentandra* contain anti-nutrient, proximate, mineral and vitamin contents. Olajide [23] reported that the succulent leaves of *C. pentandra* contain ash (8.59%), carbohydrate (55.60%), fat (1.50%), fiber (18.80%), moisture (3.34%) and protein (12.34). As reported by Osuntokun *et al.* [137], it has protein (16.25%), fat (5.34%), fiber (8.53%) ash (8.72%), moisture (7.32%) and carbohydrate (53.72%). Enechi *et al.* [149] found 47.37% for moisture, 16.81% for protein, 25.23% for carbohydrate, 4.47% for fiber, 2.23% for fats and 2.14% for ash. According to Olajide *et al.* [150], succulent leaf of *C. pentandra* possess calcium (9.93 mg/100 g), iron (19.05 mg/100 g), potassium (35.80 mg/100 g), magnesium (60.79 mg/100 g), phosphorus (78.50) and zinc (0.59 mg/100 g). Shahin *et al*. [151] reported that the leaf contains 177.0 mg/100 g of calcium, 153.66 mg/100 g of potassium, 48.15 mg/100 g of magnesium, 27.09 mg/100 g of zinc and 1.54 mg/100 g of iron. Olajide [23] obtained 0.012 mg/100 g for vitamin B12, 0.59 mg/100 g for vitamin B2 and 0.97 mg/100 g for vitamin C in succulent leaves of Kapok from Kogi State, Nigeria. Earlier report of Adepoju and Ugochukwu [141] found that Kapok leaves contain vitamin B2 (0.19 mg/100 g) and B12 (0.24 mg/100 g). Friday *et al*. [140] found that it contains phenol (173.94 mg/100 g), oxalate (0.10 mg/100 g), tannin (0.48 mg/100 g) and saponin (1.55 mg/100 g). Olajide *et al.* [150] also reported 0.19 mg/100 g of saponin, 107.10 mg/100 g of oxalate, 18.20 mg/100 g of phenol, 2.60 mg/100 g of phytate, 4.55 mg/100 g of tannin and 3.96 mg/100 g cyanide in succulent leaves of *C. pentandra* sourced from Kogi State, Nigeria. The concentration of saponin content was within the tolerable limits of 0.2% reported by Codex [152], but oxalate, phenol, phytate and tannin contents of succulent leaves of *C. pentandra* were above the tolerable limits of 5% [112], 2% [113], 9.22–5.72% [114] and 3.3% [115], respectively. Since the leaves are not eaten raw, the anti-nutrient contents may be significantly

reduced by heat during the cooking process. Boiling significantly reduced the poisonous effects of anti-nutrients and increased the leaf consumption [116, 153]. Olajide [23] conducted a study on the impact of integrated application of poultry manure and inorganic fertilizer on mineral and vitamin constituents of *C. pentandra* leaves grown in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. The results indicated that fertilizer application rates only influenced zinc and calcium with 20 t ha−1 of PM having the highest concentration of Zinc (0.45 mg/100 g) and integrated application of 5 t ha−1 of PM + 200 kg ha−1 of NPK recorded the highest value for calcium (145.00 mg/100 g). Protein consumption is necessary due to role carried out by its essential and nonessential amino acids as building blocks for protein biosynthesis not only for the growth of infants and children, but also for the steady replacement and turnover of body protein in adults [147]. Flavonoids have antiviral, antibacterial, antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties [148]. Tannins possess antioxidant, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. Phenols are known as powerful antioxidants, preventing oxidative damage to biomolecules such as DNA, lipids and proteins which are active in chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases [137]. Ascorbic acid/vitamin C empowers the body's immunity against infection, helps in collagen and thyroxin synthesis and improves absorption of iron [147]. In living organisms, ascorbate (anion of ascorbic acid) is an antioxidant that protects the body against oxidative stress and is a co-factor in several vital enzymatic reactions [154]. These constituents give the leaves their protective, preventive and therapeutic properties thus improving the gains that can be obtained by consuming these leaves.
