**5. Rangeland quality and availability of animal feeds**

*P. juliflora* replaced local biodiversity in several spots in Afar rangelands and riversides [27]. In such habitats, the grasslands had no more used for grazing and ecosystem functions of rangelands were changed to thickets of *P. juliflora*. These made Afar pastoralists moved further from their home and pasture fields. As a result, these aggravated foods and feed shortage. Mitiku [82] reported that in Amibara woreda of Afar region, *P. juliflora* severely invaded dense *Acacia* woodlands, riverine forests, and agricultural lands. His results indicated that in 16 years (1986–2001) of land use, land cover changes by *P. juliflora* and displaced 9.91 km2 areas of *Acacia* woodlands. Most households reported that invasion of *P. juliflora* into rangelands was more in Amibara woreda than in Awash Fentale [83]. These could be probability and the adaptability of the species and its first arrival in the earlier woreda than the later. Similarly, in border country Eritrea, study by Harnet [84] shows that the invasion of *P. juliflora* invaded both dry season and wet season rangelands and roadsides in lowlands. A study by Zarga [45] reveals household responses reveal that rangelands had taken over by *P. juliflora*. Moreover, in South Africa, Ndhlovu et al. [85] suggested wider areas of rangelands covered by *P. juliflora* invasions and reduced its grazing capacity.

#### **6. Biodiversity**

Invasive species are the second threats to global biodiversity loss next to the land use changes [86]. In the world, biotic invasions by alien plant species are considered as the major factors in biodiversity loss and endangered plant species. The reasons are the natural bio-geographical barriers of oceans, mountains, rivers, and deserts provided that isolation of essential species that ecosystems to evolve have lost their effectiveness due to the increase in global economy [87]. Biodiversity loss aggravated particularly the decline of plants that had associated with deforestation, land degradation, climate change effects, land use dynamics, and spread of invasive alien plants. Some of these invasive species caused considerable disasters in dry vegetation and rangelands of East Africa [88]. In Ethiopia, invasive alien plants and other native invasive plants could affect entire ecosystem services. As a result, natural agro-ecosystems are largely affected by the invasive alien plants [89].

Enormous invasive alien plants indicate in the decline of threatened and endangered native species; because they changed ecosystem processes, change of vegetation structures, and shift native species for the reason that they reached high densities and biomasses [58]. In Afar region, Tessema [13] indicated that *P. juliflora* threatened native plant species such as *Acacia prasinata*, *Boswellia ogadensis*, *Euphorbia doeloensis*, *Euphorbia ogadensis*, and *Indigofera kelleri*. *P. juliflora* blamed for many disaster effects such as replacing grasses, herbs, and shrubs, which were consumed by local livestock, injured livestock with its poisonous thorns, and causing goat teeth to rot and fall out because the small seeds got stuck between the teeth. Thousands of goats had been toothless and died from starvation following teeth loss, which decreased their number and threatening goat breed [88].
