Vitamin D3 Deficiency: The Missing Component in the Physical Activity and Lifelong Health of Children and Adolescents in Sub-Sahara Africa?

*Gitahi Theuri and Lucy-Joy Wachira*

## **Abstract**

Urbanization in Africa has led to lifestyles changes that undermine physical activity. These behavioral changes are also linked to spending less time in the Sun. Vitamin D is primarily synthesized dermally when sun rays directly strikes exposed skin. Vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency is now recognized as a global issue impairing the health of more than 1 billion people Worldwide. Serum Vitamin D levels in children in Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) has been linked to inadequate exposure to sunlight, despite it straddling the equator that affords almost yearlong overhead sunshine. Vitamin D deficiency is associated with several health challenges, which in turn undermines normal growth, development, and potential physical and mental function likely to compromise performance of physical activity and sports. This chapter highlights the role of Vitamin D, its deficiency and implications on physical activity and sports performance with particular focus on children and adolescents, who are at a prime age for foundational development of motor function, skills and performance. While parents, healthcare professionals, coaches and caregivers of children in SSA need to promote sun exposure as the primary source of vitamin D, this perhaps also calls for further attention on Vitamin D supplementation, to support health and sports performance.

**Keywords:** vitamin D, deficiency, physical activity, sports, fitness, health, children, Sub-Sahara Africa

## **1. Introduction**

Sub-Sahara Africa (SSA) is an expansive area about 23,852,823 square kilometers in size that lies between latitudes 16 o N and 35o S. Its population was estimated at 1.1 billion in 2019 by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs [1], with more than 40% of this population estimated to be below the age of 15 years.

The World Bank in 2020 estimated urbanization in this region to be above 45% with the highest rate at 90% in Gabon and 17% in Malawi [1]. Urbanization is known to offer numerous conveniences that tend to improve the standard of living in general. However, it is also associated with lifestyles that undermine engagement in sports and physical activity in children and adolescents due to numerous factors; motorized transportation, a built environment devoid of parks or social amenities for exercising, air pollution, and long hours in traffic while commuting to and from school. In general, children living in such an environment spend less time in the Sun resulting in impaired dermal Vitamin D synthesis: a key component of not only bone metabolism but also for maintaining immune homeostasis, activation of genes influencing muscle growth and differentiation, all critical factors in physical activity and sports performance.

This chapter seeks to highlight the role of Vitamin D, its deficiency and implications on physical activity and sports performance. We appreciate that effects of Vitamin D deficiency cut across all athletes but we choose to focus on children and adolescents, who are at a prime age for foundational development of motor function, skills and performance. Surprisingly, evidence on children in SSA may suggest that Africa could be the continent with one of the highest frequency of severe vitamin D deficiency [2]. This chapter appreciates that while Sun exposure is the main source for Vitamin D, it should be the primary focus for advocacy compared to prescription of supplements among athletes especially in economic-resource deprived settings such as those in Sub-Saharan Africa.

## **2. Sports and fitness activities among children and youth in SSA**

There is a perception that children are `naturally' active [3], and as previously witnessed in Africa, they would take advantage of every opportunity and space to play, given adequate time and an enabling environment regardless of availability of equipment or the ideal facility. Sports, active play and fitness activities among children and youth in SSA usually take place in the school settings (during PE classes, school sports programmes and recess time activities), home environment (active play at home and in the neighborhood with siblings and friends) and at the leisure and recreation centres (organized club activities and outdoor pursuits programmes). Activities among children and adolescents range from organized/formal sports activities (such as ball games, racket and batting sports, athletics, swimming and martial arts) and fitness programmes to informal active play characterized with fun, less stringent rules and improvisation of equipment and facilities. These are excellent opportunities to develop and nurture motor abilities and skills linked to enhanced fitness, necessary for health and performance. There is also evidence that such physical activity behavior and resulting active lifestyles tracks from childhood through adolescence and into adulthood [4].

Notably, most of these activities (especially in SSA) are designed to take place in the outdoors where participants not only interact with the built and social environment but also engage in nature-based learning, survival and experiential learning, characterized by physical engagement and active transportation. In the process, participants gained the much needed direct exposure to sunshine for Vitamin D. We are now witnessing an increase in indoor-based programmes with rapid digitization of education materials, an influx of motorized and digitized equipment and play gadgets, leading to minimized energy expenditure, overdependence on screen-based sedentary activities [5] and less sun exposure.

*Vitamin D3 Deficiency: The Missing Component in the Physical Activity and Lifelong Health… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105470*

## **3. Vitamin D**

While Vitamin D is widely known for its role in bone metabolism, the past two decades have seen a plethora of research pointing to its endocrine effects such as regulating calcium and phosphorous in the body i.e. its skeletal role. However, Vitamin D is increasingly being appreciated for its paracrine, autocrine and exocrine functions in the body as it directly affects a broad range of cells in the body, in addition to this, it regulates expression of genes involved in cell growth, protein synthesis and immune function [6].

#### **3.1 Vitamin D metabolism**

Vitamin D is primarily synthesized dermally by the action of UVB radiation of between 250 and 300 nm wavelengths when it directly strikes the exposed skin. This is then picked up by 7-dehydrocholesterol and transported in the blood to the liver where it is hydroxylated by the enzyme CYP2R1 into 25 hydroxycholecalciferol before it's transportation in the blood to the kidneys for further hydroxylation with the help of CYP27B1, where it is converted into the active metabolite 1,25 dihydroxycholelaciferol (Calcitriol), a potent steroid hormone. Calcitriol then enters the different target cells bound to Vitamin D Receptors (VDR) [7] found widely in the human body.

Cutaneous synthesis of Vitamin D via UVB solar radiation is however not possible on a year round basis for individuals living at latitudes further away from the Equator due to seasonal changes that result from the shifting of the Earth on its axis. Secondly, even in regions enjoying overhead UVB radiation on a year round basis, failure to expose oneself to the Sun's rays in a state of near or total undress when the UV index is above 3, anything below this predisposes one to Vitamin D deficiency. Thirdly, darker skinned people have less cutaneous vitamin D synthesis as a results of higher levels of melanin which absorbs UVB and therefore require three to five times longer duration of skin exposure to sunlight [8], this is particularly important given that 50–90% of Vitamin D is synthesized through the skin [9]. Extenuating circumstances such as these require supplementation with vitamin D to optimize serum levels of Vitamin D.

Vitamin D (Vitamin D3/Cholecalciferol) can be derived from foods of animal origin: animal fat, oily fish, liver and pastured eggs, while foods from plant sources such as mushrooms and fortified cereals provide ergocalciferol/ vitamin D2, however this form of vitamin D has been found to be less effective at raising serum 25(OH)D levels [10].

#### **3.2 Vitamin D status**

Vitamin D status is determined by measuring serum levels of circulating 25(OH)D, on account of its half-life of about 2–3 weeks [11]. Classification of vitamin D status is not universally agreed upon; the Institute of Medicine (IOM) classifies a serum level of 20 ng/mL as adequate [12] while the Endocrine Society suggests a serum concentration of at ≥30 ng/mL as sufficient [13]. The difference arising from the former's recommendations were exclusively based on skeletal integrity while the latter's was based on a broader range of studies examining associations between vitamin D deficiency with immune dysfunction, pregnancy and cancers alongside a decline in serum parathyroid hormone (PTH) reaching its nadir asymptomatically with 25(OH)D levels in adults at 30-40 ng/mL [12].

### **3.3 Vitamin D deficiency**

The ubiquity of Vitamin D Receptors (VDR) in numerous tissues in the human body points to the body's widespread need for 25(OH)D, where it therefore follows that deficiency or insufficiency of the same is associated with several diseases. Vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency is now recognized as a global issue impairing the health of more than 1 billion children and adults in the World [13].

### *3.3.1 Vitamin D3 deficiency in SSA*

A study on vitamin D deficiency in 3880 African children aged 0–8 years drawn from four African countries: Kenya, Burkina Faso, Uganda and South Africa, found a relatively low prevalence of Vitamin D deficiency at 0.7% when using cut-off of less than 30 nmol/L and 7.4% prevalence when using a cut-off of less than 50 nmol/L [14]. This was in stark contrast to a meta-analysis by the same investigators on the Vitamin D status of 21,474 individuals living in 23 African countries that concluded that about 18% of these had severe vitamin D deficiency using a cut-off of <30 nmol/l, "suggesting that Africa could be the continent with the highest frequency of severe vitamin D deficiency" [2]. Perhaps, the noted low prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among the children was due to the use of IOM cut-offs focused on skeletal integrity rather than the Endocrine Society's cut-offs. Ironically, the vitamin D deficiency study on young African children found that 35.4% of these children had serum concentrations between 50 and 70 nmol/L(20-28 ng/mL) clearly pointing to a 35.5% prevalence of Vitamin D3 deficiency when evaluated using the Endocrine Society's cut-off of at least 70 nmol/L(30 ng/mL) linked with better health outcomes [12].

## **4. Risk factors for vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescents**

Risks associated with Vitamin D deficiency can be traced all the way from fetal development and at birth. Children born of Vitamin D deficient mothers tend to: be born prematurely, have low birth-weight, be at risk of allergies, develop asthma and impaired neurodevelopment. Achievement of a serum vitamin D concentration of greater than 100 nmol/L (40 ng/ml) by gravid mothers has been linked with prevention of some of these health risks [15]. Maternal serum vitamin D levels have been associated with fetal femur length, femur volume, cross -sectional area of the distal metaphysis and the ratio between the former and latter in offspring as measured using ultrasound exacerbating the risk of skeletal dysplasia and shorter stature at birth [15]. Such risks likely disadvantage physical development and lead to physiological limitations in sports performance in children and adolescents years later.

Serum Vitamin D levels in children and adolescents in SSA have been linked to inadequate exposure to sunlight, despite it straddling the equator as this affords almost yearlong overhead sunshine: a UVB wavelength advantage suitable for dermal Vitamin D synthesis. In two studies focusing on Vitamin D deficiency and rickets in low income informal settlements in Nairobi, Kenya, reported both low serum Vitamin D during pregnancy and in breast milk at delivery further raising the risk of rickets in their offspring. Similarly lengthy hours indoors during infancy in daycare facilities, as mothers work during the day, further compounded the risk of rickets. In addition to this finding, about 1% of the infants had as little as 3 hours of Sunshine exposure weekly [16–18].

*Vitamin D3 Deficiency: The Missing Component in the Physical Activity and Lifelong Health… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105470*

In the southern most region of SSA; South Africa, seasonal variation and latitude have been identified as factors influencing Vitamin D status [17, 18]. Other nonpathological factors affecting Vitamin-D status in this region have been identified as: urban lifestyles, obesity, skin pigmentation and age demographics [18], while afebrile malaria has been associated with low serum vitamin D in SSA Children and adolescents.

## **5. Implications of vitamin D3 deficiency on health, physical activity and sports performance**

Vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescents is associated with several health and metabolic challenges, which in turn undermine normal growth, development and potential physical and mental function. Negative effects of Vitamin D deficiency that are likely to compromise the performance of physical activity and sports are noted in the following functions:

#### **5.1 Cardiac function**

VDR are abundant in the myocardium, vasculature, myocytes and cardiac fibroblasts, suggesting the importance of Vitamin D in myocardial function. Calcitriol, the active form of Vitamin D, has been shown to participate in structural remodeling of cardiac muscle and vascular tissue, activates myocyte contractility and in turn up-regulating myocardial force [19]. This highlights the role of Vitamin D deficiency as a negative myocardial inotrope leading to poorer contractility, the result of which is reduced cardiac output. This negative effect on myocardial function is further compounded by an increase in cardiac collagen content resulting from Vitamin D deficiency.

Abnormal electrocardiographic and echocardiographic findings suggestive of dilated cardiomyopathy, heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction, have all been found present in vitamin D deficient infants diagnosed with rickets, and such findings have returned to normal upon treatment of rickets, [20, 21].

Scientific literature indicates that Vitamin D deficiency up-regulates production of Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and that this can in turn lead to pathological enlargement of the left ventricle (LVH) and subsequently modifies the filling capacity of the left ventricle and ejections fraction, the sequela of this being hypoxic muscle tissue posing a physiological limitation to physical activity or sports performance [22–24]. Vitamin D deficiency is also associated with atherogenesis, arterial stiffness and endothelial dysfunction, and these changes in vascular function undermine vascular competence. Optimal performance in sports and physical activity is not feasible with pathological structural or functional changes in the myocardium, thus the importance of optimal serum vitamin D in children and adolescents is therefore a key component of sports and physical activity performance.

#### **5.2 Muscular function**

The importance of Vitamin D in muscle growth and function can be understood when viewed from the perspective that Vitamin D receptors are located in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus of muscle fibers to regulate their genomic or non-genomic actions [25]. In addition to this, muscle cell proliferation, differentiation and the

interaction between myosin and actin filaments in the sarcomere of muscle cells are all dependent on adequate serum Vitamin D which serves to improve the concentration of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy fuel reserve in the cell [26–29].

Low vitamin D is associated with atrophy of muscle fibers, fatty infiltration and fibrotic factors that all slow peak muscle contraction subsequently impeding generation of force [30, 31]. Vitamin D is one of several hormones known to influence the structure and function of striated muscles during all stages of life [32]. Vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescents may present as muscular pain, weakness or heaviness in the legs, these are important symptoms that parents, pediatric clinicians, sports coaches and caregivers would do well to keep in mind as they interact with this population. In this regard, Vitamin D deficiency is therefore antithetical to optimal physical activity and sports performance.

### **5.3 Lung function**

Vitamin D deficiency is associated with lower lung function, altered lung structure, wheezing, increased asthma exacerbations and use of corticosteroids [33, 34] due to deprivation of oxygen to tissues in the lung as a results of inflammation of the alveolar, damaged epithelia and impaired regeneration of endothelial barriers [35, 36], with this easily progressing to and exacerbating asthma and respiratory infections. Vitamin D deficiency is therefore at the heart of all stages of respiratory infections and severity, however, adequate vitamin D lowers susceptibility to these types of respiratory infections via production of antimicrobial cathelicidins and defensins both of which are antibacterial and antiviral in their expression [36].

Given that optimal lung function is a primary factor in extraction of oxygen from inhaled air, for delivery to the lungs and then transportation via blood to the myocardium for onward delivery to muscles during physical activity and sports performance, Vitamin D deficiency in children and adolescence would likely have an adverse effect engendering sedentary lifestyles and an increased risk of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease over the long haul.

#### **5.4 Skeletal effects of vitamin D**

Vitamin D is thought to facilitate bone metabolism through its effects in promoting calcium and phosphate absorption, both of which are critical factors for both bone development and maintenance. A second pathway by which vitamin D maintains bone Calcium levels occurs by its regulation of serum Parathyroid hormone (PTH) to prevent hypocalcemia and hypophosphatemia [37] which would otherwise result in bone loss and fracture, manifesting in bone diseases such as osteomalacia and osteoporosis in old age, however among children and adolescents, a low serum Vitamin D levels manifest in rickets.

Rickets is a bone disease marked by deformities of wrists, legs, delayed closure of the soft membranous gaps between the cranial bones in infants, as well as fraying, metaphyseal cupping and widening of the growth plate as a result of vitamin D deficiency [38], while rickets can also be caused by calcium deficiency. A case control study on rickets in children in a slum in Nairobi, comparing rickets cases to controls (children without rickets or acute malnutrition) determined biochemically and phenotypically that the pathogenesis of rickets in this cohort was a result of vitamin D deficiency and not Calcium deficiency [39]. With an estimated 18% of the population in Sub-Saharan Africa having a severely deficient serum Vitamin D level of less than

*Vitamin D3 Deficiency: The Missing Component in the Physical Activity and Lifelong Health… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105470*

30 nmol/L (12 ng/mL) [18]. The implication of this has significant negative ramifications on bone development, structural stability, bone length in children and adolescence but also in their ability to engage in physical activity and sports performance at all levels even in future.

## **6. Conclusion**

The purpose of our review was to relate the relevance of vitamin D to physical activity and sports performance. We reviewed recent advances in this field and novel insights about vitamin D: its deficiency and implications on physical activity and sports performance.

Low vitamin D status could negatively impact the health and training efficiency of athletes regardless of their age and developmental level. Research to date suggests that certain athletes are at risk for suboptimal vitamin D status, which may increase risks for stress fractures, acute illness, and suboptimal muscle function.

The emerging evidence about vitamin D and sports performance suggests the need to determine vitamin D concentration in athletes but further research is necessary to characterize the true vitamin D status by simply measuring free vitamin D rather than total 25-OHVITD.

In relation to the prevention of vitamin D deficiency, parents, healthcare professionals, coaches, caregivers of children and adolescents need to be aware that Sun exposure is the primary means of vitamin D synthesis, unfortunately, this may not be feasible for all demographics on account of distance from the Equator, pollution or skin pigmentation, however, this demographic can benefit from Vitamin D supplementation alongside minerals and vitamins that aid its absorption, activation or metabolism such as Magnesium and Vitamin K2. The importance of optimal vitamin D in myocardial, skeletal, pulmonary and immune functions is a critical component in physical activity and lifelong health of children and adolescents in Sub-Saharan Africa. This perhaps also calls for further investigation of the efficacy of Vitamin D supplementation in this demographic on health, physical activity and sports performance outcomes.

## **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

## **Author details**

Gitahi Theuri1,2 and Lucy-Joy Wachira1 \*

1 Kenyatta University, Nairobi, Kenya

2 HealRite- Chronic disease and pain intervention clinic, Nairobi, Kenya

\*Address all correspondence to: wachira.lucy@ku.ac.ke

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Vitamin D3 Deficiency: The Missing Component in the Physical Activity and Lifelong Health… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105470*

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## **Chapter 5**

## Sports Participation in South African Schools. Have We Lost the Plot?

*Jacques J. Vosloo and Dorita du Toit*

## **Abstract**

In view of global health concerns about elevated levels of inactivity and related disease patterns of citizens, policy reform in physical education and school sport (PESS) is seen as a basic human right and tool for societal transformation. Although literature supports the importance of quality PESS for different aspects of learners' development, various implementation challenges facing school sports in South Africa have been reported. Drawing on a nationwide research project, this paper seeks to provide empirical insights into the role and status of school sport. Addressing the question, *Sport participation in South African schools. Have we lost the plot?* This study adopted a blend of self-determination theory (SDT) and social justice theoretical frameworks to understand how educators' livid experiences impact their personal and social responsibility to teach, enhance, and facilitate PESS to a diverse group of learners in a diversity of schools. Results indicated that school sport is exceptionally varied, multifaceted, and complex, with different pressures and imperatives. It is exacerbated by educators who are required to assume the dual role in schools within a pressurized school environment, which results in overload, emotional rollercoaster rides, and a lack of motivation. Without meaningful motivation, continuous reform, or the revision of policy, the delivery of PESS will remain unachievable.

**Keywords:** school sport, role-players, perceptions, school sport management, social justice, self-determination theory (SDT), diversity

## **1. Introduction**

Sport has become an international focus as it transcends language, social, cultural, religious, financial, and political barriers [1]. Equally important, sport is also an integral part of human being and relating with others, and being physically active [2, 3]. It has the potential to be a positive force in the life of all children, but if the context and benefits thereof, amongst others, are not understood, it can contribute to poor choices and health risks. Research investigating children's commitment to and involvement in physical activity (PA) reveals a tangled web of personal and social factors that influence participation levels, quality of experience, and in some cases drop-out [4, 5]. Scholars in general agree that a great deal of human health

and health behaviors are formed during childhood and adolescence [6, 7]. More specifically, based on numerous data sets from countries across the globe, Gaetano [8], D'Isanto, Manna and Altavilla [9], Draper et al. [10], as well as Van Woudenberg et al. [11], amongst others, further argue that there is no articulacy that over many decades, school children's health has gradually deteriorated. Hence, considering that physical inactivity is currently seen as the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality [12], the researcher concurs with Di Palma, Raiola, and Tafuri [13] together with Francesco, Coco, Frattini, Vago, and Andrea [14] who reaffirmed the importance of quality physical education (QPE) and school sports programs and their role in the health and well-being of children. It is thus imminent now more than ever, that the time has come to implement effective high-quality school sports and QPE programs.

In order to promote and enhance sports participation, it is necessary to get a deeper understanding of why children participate in sports. Moreover, converging interests and the role of significant others have strengthened the alliance between influential institutes and persons in sport, physical education (PE), and the government [15, 16]. Samek, Elkins, Keyes, Iacono and McGue [17], Jacobs, Claringbould and Knoppers [18], and Kavassanu Al-Yaaribi [19] averred that the coach in particular is seen as the catalyst for promoting the positive effects of sport participation, which are linked to a greater school attachment and sense of belonging, higher academic aspirations, and less risky behaviors, such as alcohol and drug abuse. Similarly, Blomfield and Barber [20], Boyes, O'Sullivan, Linden, McIsaac, and Pickett [21] observed that time spent in sport and related activities is related to better peer relationships, autonomy, identity development, sense of belonging, and emotional adjustments at school, while Vella, Oades, and Crowe [22] advocated that coaches as transformational leaders are seen as role models, which together with a good relationship with learners are important tools for life skill development of learners participating in sport. However, while it is assumed that school sport is a site for pleasure and participation, as well as a positive development, Jacobs, Smits, and Knoppers [23] explicitly warn about the emotionally abusive coaching behavior in elite (competitive) school sport.

Significant others, such as educators, umpires, referees, coaches (educators and external), officials, voluntary workers, sports medical assistants, emergency services, team managers, and parents, all have a vital pedagogical function in co-creating the educational practice of competitive games in school sport, and thus, influencing learners' (participants) behavior, learning, and socializing within the game [18, 23–26]. A specialist school sports manager is a central figure and plays a pivotal and crucial role not only in the learner's sports experience and well-being [23] but also in the success and the management of school sports as a whole [27–29]. Eksteen, Willemse, Malan, and Ellis [27] extend their thinking, noting that the school sports manager is seen as the leader who regulates, facilitates, promotes, or organizes any sport-related activity in school, and utilizing resources (people, finances, facilities, and information) to achieve the goals and objectives of the school. Additionally, school sport managers plan, exercise control, give direction, and evaluate all sport and related activities and has a dual role, that is, of an educator and coach, manager, facilitator, interpreter, and enforcer, etc. [30–33]. Taken together, the role of the school sport manager thus implies [34] to dispose of background knowledge regarding the theoretical aspects of PA, exercise, and movement (play, games, sport, dance, and swimming), as well as management of sport and sport-related activities in school. Evidence indicates, however, that educators neither receive training related to content-context specific training for school sports globally [35–38] and in South

Africa [27], nor training related to cultural awareness during their initial training as educators, specifically PE teacher education [39]. Within the preceding context, the next section outlines the theoretical framework applied in this chapter.

### **1.1 Theoretical framework**

Social justice can be viewed as both a process and a goal as educators (current and pre-service) are empowered to engage in learning, understand how power dynamics apply to their own lives, and reflect on ways to pursue a more socially just society [40, 41]. Proponents of the social justice theoretical framework like Gray [42] advocate the belief that this framework allows for critical questioning of "*currently held values and assumptions."* Bell [43] denotes that social justice in education can be seen as the full and equal participation of all groups in a society that is mutually shaped to meet their needs. She goes on to state that the process for attaining the goal of social justice needs to be "*participatory, inclusive and affirming of human agency and human capacities for working collaboratively to create change"* [43]. Embracing the views of Angrosino [44] and Shiver, Andrew, Richards, and Hemphill [41], the researcher was able to directly connect to the poor and marginalized in society and used his sociological imagination to "get under the skin of daily life and an understanding of what passes as 'routine' in the context of the broader issues of power, control, and resistance to domination," [45, 46] as they are reflected in school sport.

Central to how one conceptualizes school sport, is the notion of motivation, which is underpinned by health promotional actions and development. To understand the motivational factors underpinning health promotional actions, development of children, both physically and emotionally, benefitting cognitive and social systems, the self-determination theory (SDT) of Deci and Ryan [47], has gained ground and is increasingly used by a vast amount of researchers, academics, and like as theoretical framework [48, 49]. Authors, such as Haerens et al. [50], Aelterman, Vansteenkiste, and Haerens [51], as well as Vansteenkiste, Ryan, and Soenens [52] all resolved to the use of SDT.

Deci and Ryan [53] posit that according to the tenets of SDT, the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness differ in the degree to which they are supportive of the needs of a person to be satisfied in order for them to be intrinsically motivated to persevere with a specific activity. *Autonomy* is typified by the need to employ a sense of choice and personal endorsement in one's actions and is perceived by Gorozidis and Papaioannou [54] as a vital ingredient for optimal functioning and professional growth of educators. *Competence* is seen as the need to be equipped with the knowledge and skills, in addition to concerns to feel optimally challenged and capable of effectively mastering and achieving goals. *Relatedness* refers specifically to the need to feel close to and accepted by others, and to internalize the value of an activity which connected, denoting an experience of warmth, kindheartedness, and attention [52, 55]. Van den Berghe, Vansteenkiste, Cardon, Kirk, and Haerens [56] argue that SDT suggests that a relationship exists between the extent to which these three needs are satisfied and the optimization of the intrinsic motivation of an individual. Within this framework, these psychological needs of learners should be met in sport in order to reap the health benefits and other benefits offered by PA and presented in PE [57] and sport [58, 59]. Coupled with the psychological needs of learners, other significant role-players, such as educators, principals, members of the school governing body (SGB), and sport organizers' psychological needs should also be met for them to be motivated to teach and promote QPE and sport in their school.

In seeking to provide empirical insights into the role and status of school sports in three South African provinces, by addressing the question, *Sport participation in South African schools. Have we lost the plot?* this study adopted a blend of the SDT and the social justice theoretical frameworks to understand how educators' livid experiences impact their learning and understanding of culturally relevant practices related to their personal and social responsibility to teach, enhance, and facilitate physical education and school sport (PESS) to a diverse group of learners in a diversity of schools. Based on these theories referred to previously, the experiences of prospective and current educators may further influence their future teaching styles and confidence. Subsequently, inferences made from a blended version of the two aforementioned theories should cast some light on some of the main problems encountered in contemporary South Africa, namely, motivation in a social world culturally derived and historically situated amidst rife injustice. Considering the urgency of the necessity to reduce obesity amongst South African citizens and the need for PA for school children, it is critical to know what can improve the importance and usefulness of school sports as experienced by different role-players in a diversity of South African schools with a view to increasing school practice of PA.

With such a plethora of influences and practices and the current congested space, some burning questions remain. In the light of the preceding discussion, one can justifiably ask: What does school sport look like in the South African public school system, and what type of activities or models feature in the school sport? Such questions inform the comprehensive national research project mandated by the UNICEF-DBE partnership where 25 researchers from seven South African public universities participated as a key driver from the South African University Physical Education Association (SAUPEA) [60]. Drawing on the national research, this paper reports on the perception of different role-players, main activities, importance, and role and status of school sport that constitute the current school sports space' and dimensions associated with school sport and QPE across a spectrum of diverse school types. For clarity, one, therefore, has to scrutinize and examine existing practices.

## **2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Research design**

The mixed method case-study approach employing an interpretative approach was adopted for the complex national and in-depth explorative study to which the research in this study contributed [61–63]. The school as a unit of analysis across different geographical settings (rural and urban), types of schools based on a socioeconomic status (SES) categorization (quintile 1 to 5), and type of learners (primary and secondary school learners, as well as learners with special educational needs), used in this study, informed the investigation of the social world of participants. As a result, hereof, the researcher and participants were allowed to actively "*participate in dialogue about multiple ways of seeing and hearing; making sense of the social world and standpoints of what is important and to be valued and cherished*" [64]. Such an approach enabled multi-layered interpretations of how programs are delivered in the PESS "space" and how they are experienced, understood, and connected to the wider school curriculum [65–67]. Furthermore, the described, adopted approach

### *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106812 Sports Participation in South African Schools. Have We Lost the Plot?*

also allowed for the triangulation of results and concurrent theme integration of idiosyncratic circumstances, approaches, opinions, and practices of different respondents from the combination of both qualitative (individual and focus group interviews and observation) and quantitative methods (questionnaires) to reveal the complex reality of multiple understandings where data intersect, and to attain trustworthiness [68].

Informed by earlier research for a global priority and the need to measure and evaluate the impact of sports development relating to the management and delivery of a program and the impact on human and social development, Burnett and Hollander [69] developed the Sport for Development Impact Assessment Tool (S∙DIAT). The S∙DIAT gained global attraction and has subsequently been utilized for other national sport-related assessments [70–72]. In fact, Haudenhuyse, Theeboom, and Nols [73] believe that the S∙DIAT offers a solution to prejudice and biased views of intervention required when involved with children in PESS. Consequently, based on Haudenhuyse et al.'s [73] advice *"to find a balance between the contextual-realistic sport and PE viewed interventions and at times seen more valuable and intellectually sound evaluation practices,*" it allowed for an adapted and open-minded approach during interviews with learners by the researcher, thus refraining to stereotype and a biased approach.

The research methodology used during the study to collect the data ensured that all relevant stakeholders and significant others that play a role in the "PESS space" provided relevant information by applying various research methods.

#### **2.2 Study setting, sampling, and instruments**

The current study, which dovetailed with a larger study informed and driven by the SAUPEA (REC-01-131-2016), in collaboration with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), which provided the impetus for nationwide research under the leadership of the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the DBE and Higher Education Institutions (HEI), three provinces, namely, Free State, North West, and Northern Cape were chosen. Schools included in the sample were within a radius of 150 kilometers from the university, (University of the Free State, Free State province and North West University, Potchefstroom campus, North West province) or the airport where there was no participating local university (Northern Cape). Nonprobability sampling as proposed by Leedy and Ormrod [74] to afford clustered comparison across all school types who often are not only externally homogeneous, but internally heterogeneous on the one hand, but on the other hand, share associated contextual realities, in the form of purposive and convenience (availability) were applied [75, 76]. Within the clustered sampling of school and participant types, specific schools were selected with a specific purpose in mind. A specific selection of schools were subsequently combined with the convenience (availability) of schools. Schools selected for this research included six former (ex) Model C <sup>1</sup> , of which one was technically inclined (quantile four and five) and six rural schools (quantile one

<sup>1</sup> *Former (Ex) Model C schools* refer to former state-aided public schools, which formerly constituted mainly white learners in which the school governing body (SGB) may determine their own admission policy within the legal bounds of the South African Schools Act and the Constitution of South Africa.

to three)<sup>2</sup> , five township schools (quantile one to three)<sup>3</sup> as well as four schools for learners with special educational needs (LSEN). In the South African school context, all public schools are categorized based on the socioeconomic status of the school. All schools are thus benchmarked against three poverty indicators: income, unemployment rate, and the level of education of the community it serves. A poverty score is given to the community and school which is then assigned a "quintile" – categories defined at the national level [77, 78]. Schools in this study included one school each of quantile one and three, four schools of quantile two, six from quantile three, and five from quantile five. Were used4 . The four LSEN schools are not awarded a quantile ranking and represent a combined model for primary and secondary learners.

Data in the form of semi-structured interviews with principals or deputy principals (*n* = 21), heads of sport (*n* = 21), focus group interviews with heads of departments (HOD's), educators as well as learners [(Grade 10 and/or 11 (Secondary schools) and Grade 6 and/or 7 (Primary schools)] (*n* = 48), in total 198 focus group participants, were collected, while questionnaires were completed by sport directors (*n* = 21), and educators who have not participated in the focus group interviews (*n* = 46). All 21 schools were co-educational schools across three provinces (Free State, North West, and Northern Cape), inclusive of two sport-focus schools as determined by the DBE.

### *2.2.1 Collection procedures*

During research visits to schools, an observation protocol was followed to identify and visually capture the quality of physical resources (facilities and equipment), infrastructure, surroundings, environment (context), and branding, as well as signage. All relevant documentation regarding school-based statistical information contributing to the profile of the school, networking, and partnerships relating to school sport and PE-related practices were captured for description and analysis. On-site procedures followed the same pattern at each school, inclusive of the following: an introduction to the research with each research cohort, completion of questionnaires by educators and HODs, separate focus group interviews with learners,

<sup>4</sup> In the South African school's context the National Norms and Standards for School Funding (NNSSF) aimed to improve equity in funding of education by ranking each school into quantiles from one [1] to five [5]. The schools in the most economically disadvantaged (poor/impoverished) geographical areas are categorized as quantile one [1] schools and those in the most economically advantaged geographical areas (wealthiest/affluent) as quantile five [5]. Quantile one, two and three schools are no fee schools, while quantile four and five schools are fee-paying schools. The assumption was that parents from the latter can afford to pay school fees, and therefore, these schools require less governmental support, while no fee schools should receive more support from government than schools serving wealthier communities. It was expected that this decision should result in equal and fair distribution of funds between impoverished and affluent schools. In general, it is assumed that across all provinces that schools across the same quantile ranking should be of comparable socioeconomic status and standard. The implementation of the quantile system has not, however, proved to be as effective as originally envisaged.

<sup>2</sup> Rural schools are schools found in farms, villages, semi-urban areas, remote areas, and mainly infrastructurally underdeveloped.

<sup>3</sup> Township schools refer to schools in residential areas of South Africa, which originated as racially segregated, low cost-housing developments for black learners, that is, Africans, Coloreds, and Indians. Hence, in relation to this study, township schools would refer to any school built on the periphery of towns and cities, often characterized by poverty, crime, and violence.

educators, HODs, and an individual interview with the school principal and head of sport. Each participant, except learners, also completed a questionnaire to provide some background information about the participants.

The exploratory questionnaires, completed by a total of 46 educators/HODs, served to establish the current demographic data of educators involved in school sports. Section two of the questionnaires focused on school-related experiences, perceptions, and opinions regarding the status, availability, and use of resources and implementation practices of school sports in their respective schools. The last section required Likert-scale and categorical responses to strategic information regarding challenges and recommendations, followed by an open category of actionable recommendations to prioritize views and identify real needs.

A questionnaire distributed to sport directors was completed by the purposive sample of 21 sport directors (one per school, *n* = 21) and captured the values, perceptions, and interests of the respondents [70] within a pre-determined scaffold. Respondents were thus required to provide information in terms of demographic data about themselves and the school (section one), physical resources (section two), and sport competitions (section three), followed by information with regards to financial resources. In conclusion information about different stakeholders and parents' involvement was captured.

Focus group interviews followed the same design as the questionnaires but enabled the collection of narrative data so as to offer contextual explanations of empirical data and to allow for thematic integration for case data analysis [79, 80]. The interview schedule fixated on in-context implementation of PESS within a school setting, followed by the detection of good practices, challenges, and recommendations for improving the quality of PESS against the background of what globally constitutes QPE [81] and innovative teaching and learning through sport for well-rounded and developed learners [82–85]. In an endeavor to ensure a holistic approach, the researcher also took down notes during focus group interviews to record nuances, cues, and nonverbal expressions. In addition, during research visits at each of the 21 participating schools, an observation checklist was used by the researchers to capture their observations of the quality of physical resources (facilities and equipment), surroundings (SES), billboards and/or advertisements relating to partnerships (branding), as well as the teaching/implementation of PESS and learner participation, by keeping field notes.

The aims of the research were clearly communicated to the participants, and they were informed that their participation was voluntary. Ethical clearance (REC 01–35- 2019) was obtained from the DBE and the ethics research committee in the Faculty of Health Sciences of the University of Johannesburg (UJ) where the national project is located.

Consistent with the ethical requirements of the researcher to uphold the duty scholars have to society to conduct their studies in the most conscientious and responsible manner possible, all research participants gave signed consent for taking part in the research (in the case of the learners, parental consent was obtained) and audio recording of interviews. All audio recordings were on password devices designated for the research, while pseudonyms were used to protect the anonymity of the participants and the schools they represent; all devices were deleted after transcription. The researcher abided by high standards of ethical conduct and considerations at all times regarding the right to privacy, confidentiality, and anonymity, respecting basic human rights, as enshrined in the Constitution, and protecting participants against possible harm and abuse [86].

#### *2.2.2 Data analysis*

An inductive qualitative content analysis process integrating the guidelines of Graneheim and Lundman [87], Creswell and Poth [79], as well as Mikaelson, Rutberg, Lindqvist, and Michaelson [88], aided by a computer software program, Atlas.ti™ Version 8, was utilized to analyze all interviews after the interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim. Each interview was read several times to obtain a sense of the content. Next, the data from participant responses to questions in the interviews were encoded and patterns were identified in accordance with the aims of the study. Patterns resulted in identified categories and sub-categories, which were condensed (refined) further through selective coding to identify core categories or main themes with semantically related sub-themes.

Quantitative data were interpreted using the statistical package of the social sciences (IBM SPSS 21). This computer program analyzed data collected from closed questions and generated descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and frequencies. To identify inter-group comparisons, such as respondents from different school types (quintiles) and comparing HOD and educator data, geographical location (province or urban vs. rural), or gender-related differences, a cluster analysis was applied and cross-tabulation to determine statistical significance levels (Pearson chi-square values, p = <0.05 and p = <0.0001), as well as Cramer's V to determine effect size ranges [89]. For the purposes of this study, Cronbach's alpha (χ) coefficient was employed to determine the internal reliability of the measurement instrument (in this case, the questionnaire). Responses to the questionnaires were scrutinized for patterns, inconsistencies, contradictions, and consequences. This line-to-line coding (open coding) identified emerging themes [90, 91].

#### *2.2.3 Validity, reliability, and trustworthiness*

A pilot study was done prior to the data collection with non-related research participants in Gauteng and North West, in order to ensure a uniform understanding of the types of questions to be asked. Following the pilot, research questions were adapted according to feedback, which included providing more clarification as to what the question was asking or to add more instructions for easier understanding of the children's questionnaire. Standardized procedures and protocols were followed but were adapted in accordance with circumstances.

Trustworthiness was attained through triangulating multiple methods of data collection [92–94] in order to establish credibility through constant comparative analysis of transcribed interviews and focus groups, which in this study addressed different methods and sets of data, settings, and clustered samples, times, space, and levels. Validity in data analysis was ensured by giving transcribed data to participants to validate and recordings were presented to an independent researcher to validate the transcriptions [95].

All participants completed consent forms in addition to learners who also completed assent forms. The current paper draws on descriptions and visual recordings (observations) of the types of activities in which learners participate in sport as a source of triangulation and thematic saturation. The results of the research are under discussion next.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106812 Sports Participation in South African Schools. Have We Lost the Plot?*

## **3. Results**

From the analysis of all data sets, with regard to school sport, and consistent with the aims of this study, different approaches of implementation emerged, which points to a typology highly associated with quintile-ranked clustering. The sample schools were clustered according to their quintile ranking showing a bias toward quintiles two and five for primary schools and quantiles one, three, and five for secondary schools. For analysis and discussion purposes, the lower (one to three) and higher (four and five) are grouped together as they share similar features and school practices. Results obtained from the adapted S- DIAT questionnaire in synthesis with the semi-structured interviews, document analysis, and observations are now presented according to each school context and discussed, as previously stated using a blended theoretical framework of SDT and social justice.

#### **3.1 Former model C schools**

The results show that all the former Model C school learners in the study have access to sport that is facilitated by trained coaches, which is supported by a sportfocused approach to PE along a continuum of sport-for-all (inclusive participation) or mass participation [60]. In most cases, the former Model C schools who applied this approach, chose sports activities that related to the main sport, codes the school participated in during a particular term, citing the purpose hereof as preparation for the upcoming season. In all of the former Model C schools, outsourced specialists, in addition to educators are employed, offering a wide range of sporting activities. Four of the former Model C schools are well-resourced and endowed with a swimming pool, although two are no longer in use due to high cost of maintenance and repairs, more than one rugby and/or soccer field and hockey fields, as well as an Astroturf hockey field (or are within walking distance of an adjacent school who has one), tennis and netball courts, indoor cricket facilities. One secondary school also disposes of a soccer complex and clubhouse, and two secondary schools also have an indoor cricket center and a well-equipped gymnasium. Special sports academies for specific sports are established on the school premises, which allow for superior quality, needs-specific individual coaching, and improved quality. All schools have sufficient ablution facilities and change rooms. Equipment for different sporting codes offered by the school is available, although the majority of learners provide their own equipment.

The majority of schools have a sports policy, and in the former Model C schools, participation is compulsory, with learners required to participate in at least one activity per term. For athletics and swimming mass participation is encouraged, but to be competitive only the best available, participating learners are selected for teams. Based on personal sporting backgrounds and having received sports coach training, some educators or external coaches assist in talent identification (not necessarily talent development). Most of them engage in sports coaching at school.

Perceptions and realities within schools were disjointed with regard to school sport. Experiences and perceptions varied from positive to negative. Principals and learners, in general, were perceived to be more positive than the HOD's and educators, not only about life kills (LS) or life orientation (LO) but also PESS. The positive experiences and perceptions were clear from the principals' points of view as they

indicated that sport together with PE specifically contributes to the holistic development and health of learners. Subsequently, PE is seen as an important means to identify and develop sporting talent. For this reason, some schools employ outside coaches, specially trained fitness consultants, medical (biokinetics, physiotherapists, and sports psychologists), or sports scientists to invest in the development of learners, infrastructure, and marketing. Similar views are expressed by the deputy principal of one of the secondary schools, an experienced coach of more than 30 years himself, who firmly believes that sport has a place in school, but due to circumstances, sport is slowly, but surely disappearing from schools. He echoes the belief that government is not serious about the sport and does not provide enough support.

*"They (government) are not worried about the sport, they are just there and happy there is sport, I am involved with rugby, there is no money."*

Generally speaking, involvement as an educator also affords one the opportunity to develop a holistic approach to view a learner not only from involvement in sports but also academically; the ultimate result is a well-equipped coach who develops learners as sportsperson, which has value to the community: "*A well-rounded learner that stays of the street and mischief, because a child in a sport, is a child out of court."* Educators are also cognizant of the real value of school sport and what it means to the learners and the school. Ultimately, educators believe that "sport builds team spirit, character, and helps one become a better person" who is awarded amongst others by going on camps, receives certificates and awards, such as trophies and possible bursaries. One educator, though, was quick to highlight the downside of sport, in particular during sports days, where sport becomes "a festive point of alcohol and substance abuse, violence and verbal abuse of players and officials." With reference to sport, learners from the former Model C schools, in particular, welcomed the fact they were able to compete amongst others in a variety of sports and were not forced to choose between different sports, in addition to receiving a lot of support and encouragement from their educators and school. *"I think it is particularly good because we can choose what we want to do. We can do more than one thing. You can do everything that you like to do."*

### **3.2 Township schools**

Sport in township schools is mostly facilitated by an untrained, unqualified, inexperienced educator who is an enthusiast of some kind of sport, mostly soccer. At the root of the life skill value approach, which forms the basis of sport in the township schools, is an endeavor by peer-educators for the correction and/or rehabilitation tailored to the prevention or countering of socially deviant behaviors through PESS. In this regard, a deputy principal from a primary township school recognizes the importance of school sport to reduce behavioral problems, such as discipline in school, and believes that sport can thus bring tremendous relief to minimize discipline problems, because a *"child in a sport, is a child out of court."*

The results from the study also clearly pointed to a correlation between the SES of the school and resources. A common comment from all role-players in township schools was that they lack sufficient resources (physical, financial, human, and information). The premises of all the primary schools were neglected, the grass uncut and there was a lot of rubbish on the school grounds. All three primary schools also had a courtyard between classrooms, which was paved and neat, but needed care,

#### *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106812 Sports Participation in South African Schools. Have We Lost the Plot?*

as that was the area mostly used for PE classes, and sports. All the primary schools were surrounded by squatter camps, while there was a community sports complex, which catered for amongst others, soccer and cricket, basketball, netball, and athletics either across the road or within walking distance. The neighborhoods were not regarded as safe and there was a high incidence of gangsterism and substance abuse. A HOD of one of the primary schools clearly states that "*We (they) have no equipment whatsoever, only a few portable, collapsible poles which can be used for soccer and netball."* The premises of all the secondary schools were clearly not taken care of and they mostly made use of local community sports centers or clubs to facilitate sports, such as rugby, cricket, soccer, basketball, netball, and athletics. The grass is not cut, and the available space used mostly for soccer is unkempt. Secondary township schools to a large extent also relied on donations or sponsors to assist with apparatus/equipment. Ablution facilities in all township schools were inadequate with toilets that were frequently blocked, and there were insufficient toilets to provide for the needs of learners in the respective schools. There were no change rooms which presented a challenge of its own.

In contrast to the former Model C schools, none of the township schools had a designated sports policy in place. Mass participation is encouraged, although only a selected few, the best of the best are selected to continue participation in leagues and competitions. Only one primary and two secondary schools have an educator who has formal training in PE, while the others are not trained at all. Educators are involved with sport only, sometimes simply because it is seen as part of their job description, and in other instances only if they have to, but have no formal training. Due to a lack of resources (facilities, equipment, and finances) learners hardly train for participation in sport, except maybe just prior to a competition and/or event organized by DBE. Both secondary schools, though, participate at all levels, that is, local, district, regional, provincial, and national representing the school and/or province. Equipment in the secondary schools also does not last long because of wear and tear, or it is often stolen. Parents cannot contribute toward the provision of equipment for their children, although they complain if the school has insufficient equipment and opportunities. The importance of PESS is acknowledged by respondents for the impact on health, mainly because of a dedicated educator and sports coach who is involved with the practical PE periods and chess.

Most educators are positive that sport is valuable and plays a role in the school. One HOD from a secondary township school's perception regarding the role and importance of school sport was that it "gives the learners who cannot cope academically some kind of confidence and a need to win." According to her, parents often accuse the educators of schools that were biased toward learners, and that the diverse cultures at the school occasionally led to learners offending one another, sometimes unknowingly and sometimes intentionally. Educators needed support from parents because they had to face many challenges, *"No time for sports, obviously, and learners are not interested and then there are no facilities, nothing anyone wants to partake in, we struggle to develop."* To honor the vision of effective teaching and learning in an environment conducive to developing the potential of all learners optimally, a HOD from one of the primary schools elucidates that *"we have started appointing qualified educators. I am now bringing on other educators from other races, like we are now appointing white people at this school for them to integrate with us. At present, we are having two white educators at school and I am aiming to have more."* Several educators from primary schools made a remark that PESS can be significant if it is incorporated into teaching in the classroom. Educators further perceive that there is a relationship between what

they do in the theory in textbooks, in terms of LO and PE and the practical execution thereof in PE. Moreover, they believe there is a positive relationship between sport and academic performance. At one primary school, educators, in general, feel that their attempts to improvise should be recognized, even if the activity is not in the policy because the children were actively busy. A seasoned educator from a primary school observes, *"Teaching before, even during the times of apartheid, the sport was one of the most important things in the school, learners used to participate in athletics, soccer matches, soccer tournaments, softball, basketball, now since now the new government came into place, sports has been relegated to the fringes, whereby everything is knowledge, knowledge, and knowledge."*

Educators from secondary schools agree with their primary school colleagues regarding challenges they encounter as a result of a lack of facilities and add to that a lack of proper training, whilst the lack of adequate, quality space and a sports ground, as well as other facilities and equipment hampers sport participation. "*Challenge, we do not really have facilities, we need to implement sport, we do not have the sporting ground, we do not have the equipment, so we are having difficulties to expose the learners to sport, so they do not have time to practice. We lack resources to enable learners to be involved in sport. Parents want learners to participate in sport."*

Learners from both primary and secondary schools agreed that sport was necessary and strengthened one's body. They also listed the benefits, such as reduction of stress, better focus, and clear mind. It helps one emotionally and psychologically, with social skills and decision-making. It kept learners off the street away from crime as well as being given the opportunity to "*express their minds and to play because in basketball, we always go outside."* Some learners were concerned about the safety of the school premises. A learner from a primary school commented that PE could help educators with talent identification, but without PE, talented sportsmen and women would not be recognized.

### **3.3 Rural schools**

Regarding rural schools, results indicated that rural schools in particular face many challenges, which viewed from the blended theoretical frameworks of SDT and social justice, indicated that rural schools are vulnerable, educators lack motivation and learners need to be given the opportunity to participate in school sport. In the rural schools, there are no trained PE educators, and the majority of educators are also in need of training to be able to successfully implement and facilitate sport, while funding for the facilitation of school sports and facilities is often non-existent. Substance abuse and gangsterism are ongoing challenges in all three provinces. The rate of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) in the Northern Cape is amongst the highest in the world, with the Galeshewe Township, where part of this study took place, recording rates of 11% per 1000 young people (as compared to global average of 0.1–0.8%) [96, 97]. One primary school has a sports ground attached to it, while another has an all-weather sports ground attached to the school and one school has a soccer field and a space behind the school that is used for netball. Two primary schools also have a tennis and netball court. The third and last primary school has a sub-standard netball court, with no correct painted lines and demarcations. In response to the question about the physical resources, one of the sports coordinators from a primary school responded as follows*: "The problem that we are actually having is equipment, it is the biggest problem we have. Soccer balls, cricket bats, hockey sticks, all of those things and especially the sports grounds.*" Another respondent from a primary

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106812 Sports Participation in South African Schools. Have We Lost the Plot?*

school responded that *"facilities are the weakness."* From her response, it was evident that she has lost all faith and was frustrated with a total lack of any resources because she was well aware of the role and importance of school sport. *"Sport will benefit the learners, it will make learners healthy, they will do much better, they will have a fresh mindset, keep them out of trouble, if you have time for sport, you will not have time to do bad things, things outside school."*

In the secondary schools, there are no facilities, except for a large open field, which is not conducive to and adequate for sport. One school at least has two dilapidated multi-purpose courts, although the surfaces of the courts have disintegrated and are not suitable for physical activities and PESS in particular. The deputy principal of a secondary school confirmed that they are faced with challenges to implement school sport, including dropout of school, socioeconomic issues like poverty and malnutrition, high workload, and the precedence of academics over sport, amongst others, "*Only through the grace of the Lord, do learners excel in sport."*

Similar to the township schools, the majority of the rural schools do not dispose of a designated sport policy, and sport in these schools have a low status. Both school cohorts offer limited sports opportunities, due to a lack of resources (physical, financial, human, and information). Some of the reasons cited by learners and educators for limited opportunities for participation in sports, included amongst other pressure to perform academically and time constraints, especially the Grade 12 learners. Learners in the general train when competitions are forthcoming and participate in competitions and events organized by the DBE. Learners also play for clubs in the community.

Schools, in general, make use of educators as coaches and in the case of soccer, in particular outside coaches, old scholars, and experts with previous and/or experience being involved in sport at this point in time to assist with the facilitation of sport in the school. According to the principal of a primary school *"learners like to play." As a result, our learners encouraged to participate in a wide variety of sports, because "schools who do not have sport, their enrolment goes down." Learners have a lot of energy. This energy must be used somewhere, otherwise, they are gonna be involved in social ills."* Educators feel that there is enough information available for all sports coaches, however, the basic knowledge required to use the information is lacking. Although some of primary school coaches dispose of expertise and knowledge of the sport, the implementation of the sport is curtailed by the negative perception of the equipment and facilities. The concern lies in that the equipment and facilities are unsafe because the educators do not know how to use them. Resources, therefore, are under-utilized due to a lack of awareness, proper training, commitment, and involvement. In the words of a male educator: *"Educators must be more involved and regularly empowered, receive workshops, maybe if they know how the sport work, they will know how to appreciate the sport. In that way, they will obligate and be more involved."*

Although several educators from both the primary and secondary rural schools recognize the value of sport for the development of learners, many of the educators held the opinion that the lack of equipment had a negative effect on their motivation to present PE and coach sports. Most of the learners in the focus group interviews agreed that the lack of equipment demotivated them to participate in PESS. The deputy principal of a secondary school clearly indicated that educators are demoralized to be involved in sports due to the lack of infrastructure. He also believes school sport is important, but because of lack of facilities, it has an impact on learner participation.

The preceding view echoed that of the vast majority of educators from rural schools. In the majority of secondary schools, PE and/or sport is not implemented. Educators offer the following reasons: "*there is too much administration and paperwork," "inadequate facilities"* (having only an open space, unsafe fields, or a space next to classrooms where it should be quiet), *"lack of equipment*" (in some cases only two soccer and two netball balls for a school of about 400 learners), and *"have no training or interest*." This articulates a low status and educators not appreciating or recognizing the potential educational value of PESS within a broader educational framework. Alarmingly, older, more experienced educators, in general, believe that when new educators come to the school to teach PE and coach sports, they are not fully qualified to teach as they *"do not know the basics, such as stretching and exercises."* As a result, they rely on a fragmented knowledge and understanding of what sport is to coach a sport. One educator, in particular, insists that coaches should be taken on courses, different courses for different sports codes, with at least two to three trained per sports code. He also believes that *"one should start with PE. Then sport will flourish*." Another educator reports that learners should be educated and taught the correct values, the importance of sport, and how to be fit and healthy, because *"most of the time the children go home and sit and eat in front of the TV, watch TV and become fat,"* whereas *if learners are motivated to stay healthy and fit, the end result will be a healthy mind and body, keeping them away from bad habits.* For some educators, the achievements of the school in sport are seen as key to the market sport through the school and the marketing of the school.

### **3.4 LSEN schools**

At all four LSEN schools the principals, HODs, educators, and learners were all in agreement that PESS played an important role, not only in the general education of learners but also in their holistic development (physical, emotional, cognitive, social, moral, personality, and psychological). Noticeably, PESS were seen as beneficial in particular to physically impaired learners as part of their physical conditioning, rehabilitation therapy, and health improvement. In the LSEN schools, there was thus a strong focus on sport within PE as part of the physical conditioning and health improvement of learners as well as to be competitive in the different categories of disabled sport. Moreover, PE is thus regarded as a platform or vehicle to introduce learners to the various kinds of sports that are available at school or that they can pursue in their own time. This articulates high esteem for sport underpinned by a dominant health-focused approach and educators appreciate the educational value of PE and sport within the broader educational framework. Specialized staff (occupational and speech therapist, physiotherapist, nurses, and psychologist), based upon a thorough assessment of learners and regular follow-ups, mostly assist in the adaptation of activities to ensure inclusive participation and rehabilitation. These activities are facilitated by dedicated educators, who are not necessarily trained to facilitate PE and sports for disabled learners to ensure optimum results in terms of rehabilitation. The underpinning of a corrective, adaptive, and rehabilitative approach underpins the notion of framing PESS as a means for a bio-medical paradigm for preventing or countering bad health. There seems also to be a variety of activities and particularly sports skills that enabled the learners to participate meaningfully and benefit physically according to their rehabilitation profile and physical abilities. These include amongst other cricket, netball, rugby, soccer, cross country, chess, athletics, swimming, softball, and archery. Sports specifically for physically disabled learners include chess, swimming, athletics, cycling, para-cycling, table tennis as well as wheelchair table tennis and boccia (A sport played by learners in wheelchairs and is the

#### *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106812 Sports Participation in South African Schools. Have We Lost the Plot?*

equivalent of grass or lawn bowls). The importance of sport is further supported by the results from the questionnaires, which indicated that 88.2% of all primary school and 81.3% of secondary learners participate in sport.

A socioeconomic picture emerges once more when comparing the physical resources of LSEN school to those of the former Model C schools, rural and township schools. Because one of the LSEN schools used to be considered one of the "stateof-the-art" schools for learners with disabilities, it has a lot of infrastructure and space in place, however, is not at the same standard that it used to be because of high maintenance costs as well as severe droughts and water restrictions. They have a hall that is used for boccia, a well-equipped indoor gymnasium, and two indoor swimming pools, used mainly for therapy. Facilities at the other three LSEN schools include amongst others, a school hall used for Boccia, netball courts, swimming pools, and tennis courts, while two schools have a multisport court sponsored by the National Lottery Fund, and one school in addition to the aforementioned facilities also has an Astroturf Hockey field, an archery range, an outdoor gymnasium, and two rugby fields, which are also used as a cricket and soccer field.

In the LSEN schools, it is paramount to dispose of a specific sports policy, in particular aspects related to liability. For LSEN schools' independence and traveling of learners is challenging, but due to a high number of learners residing in the school's hostel, most learners participate in extramural sports and are in fact given as much opportunities as possible to participate and are encouraged to participate in at least two sports, one summer and one winter sport. The emphasis in sports is on mass participation and encouraging a healthy lifestyle. Educators and volunteers are responsible for the facilitation of sport and for that purpose, a sports period in addition to the normal PE as part of LO is used to specifically coach and train learners for sport. Most of the principals, HOD's and educators alluded to the lack of adequately trained educators to deliver sport and related activities in accordance with the physical and/or mental abilities of learners.

As a whole, principals, HOD's, educators, and learners all avow that school sport has value and benefits to the school, educators, learners as well as the community. In this regard, most of the principals and educators referred to the opportunities sport presents to learners. In the words of a principal: "*sport is an area where learners shine and showcase their talents. We have a number of learners selected for provincial and national teams. It affords one the opportunity to participate even internationally*." Educators supplemented the preceding view by saying that sport affords these learners the opportunity to tour and see places. *"Go on tours*. *They like it. It is the only way they can get anywhere, to see places like Cape Town and Pretoria."* Similar views were expressed by learners when asked what the value of sport was and emphasized the fact that they were given opportunities and were prepared for life through vocational (practical) training. "*They give us lots of opportunities at our school in a wide variety of sports," "Prepare us for life after school, focus on vocational training."* "*It is good for your body. It gives me opportunities to be involved and get away from all the bad things, teach me enjoyment and teamwork."*

Other benefits according to educators relate to the fact that learners with learning disabilities can let go, vent their frustrations and feelings, and as such regards sport as an opiate. These educators further believe that sport is beneficial to learners with learning disabilities because sport is a place where they feel they belong and fits in, because they can do things what other can do or even do better, when then withdrawn, all of a sudden, "*the child is frustrated and irritated, they really get mad if they do not get the physical training (PT) and/or sports sessions*."

One of the biggest problems with regard to school sport according to another principal, not only in South Africa but globally is that humans tend to do sport in order to represent a specific team or whatever, and if they do not make it, they start losing and then they stop doing it. He recommends a *"change in perception to see sport as an investment in your own health. In that way, one will participate in sport your whole life."* In conclusion, educators, perceive sport to be a catalyst for those who struggle academically, but excel in sport and ultimately, eventually progress and perform better academically.

## **4. Discussion**

All the sampled schools present or offer school sports to a certain extent to the best of their ability and capabilities. The different typologies (former Model C schools, rural, township, and LSEN) are however not consistent with the implementation of school sports. In general, the approach of those participants to school sports and the implementation challenges they experience as reported in this study, are consistent with those reported in other South African studies [98–100]. Overall, former Model C schools were found to be the most effective at implementing sport due to a variety of factors, such as access to resources and trained staff, as well as internal support within the school structure. In rural and township schools, the implementation of school sports is constrained by numerous factors, which include the lack of specialists, trained sports coaches, and managers (no champions for the different sports), poor or non-existent facilities and sports equipment, and limited internal support. The quality of the sports coaching and the experiences of learners are directly impacted by the availability of facilities, equipment, and opportunity to gain experience and practice new sports skills individually and within a team context. These findings are congruent with a study conducted by Mchunu and Roux [101] who reported a lack of proper, well-maintained, and accessible facilities conducive to sports participation as well as equipment, as the main reasons why learners are discouraged from participation in sport. Kubayi, Toriola, and Monyeki [102], Morar, Coopoo, Shaw and Shaw [103], Du Plessis, and Mestry [104] together with Moloi [105] further supported the preceding finding when they recommended the provision of basic equipment, hiring of qualified coaches and sport coordinators, facilitated access to sports facilities and parental support to motivate and encourage learner participation in sport. Similarly, Nongogo, Kubayi, and Amusa [66] inferred that in South Africa's historically White-only suburbs, where every school has several sports facilities, inclusive of some of which are not being used to full capacity, the low participation rate amongst girls in historically Black townships in South Africa can be attributed to a lack of quality sporting facilities and unqualified, inexperienced coaches. Educators who hold a sports federation level qualification (from level 1 to level 3) are relatively more successful at applying technical information, whereas external specialist sport coaches often focus on the sports skill learning and developing talented players or athletes for competitive sports participation. Disconcertingly, a large number of schools still have older, more experienced educators who question the ability, attitude, and commitment to the teaching of their younger colleagues, but more specifically the facilitation of school sport. Many specialist PE educators qualified in the 1980s or 1990s when universities offered such degree courses but did not necessarily keep track of the subject matter that meets the interests and reflects a more popular youth culture. This resulted in the over-emphasis on competitive sports skills and less didactical flexibility than that of

#### *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106812 Sports Participation in South African Schools. Have We Lost the Plot?*

"compassionate educators" who offer classes in which learners enjoy and experience success despite the diversity in skill level. Similar findings are reported by Burnett [60] in her report on the state and status of PE in public schools in South Africa. She indicates that at the time of the report, only 65.3% of HOD's taught PE. Moreover, she explicitly warns different stakeholders and policymakers of the challenge it would pose to schools and HOD's in particular in being optimally informed of educator performances or being able to provide adequate leadership and mentorship for inexperienced and inadequately trained educators. This is an area that is worthy of further formal inquiry.

In all four school contexts the inclusion of PE in the curriculum to enhance and improve performance in school sport and ultimately sport as a whole is supported for reasons that include the following: helps with cognitive development and selfconfidence; helps learners to get fit and healthy; is considered to be very important in helping learners to stay away from smoking, crime, alcohol, and drugs, including glue and *whoonga* (street drug), that is rife in the township in particular; and provides an opportunity for academically weak learners to possibly express themselves on the field. Educators, learners, and other role-players, such as subject advisors, have reported that they value both school sports and PE for their contribution to learners' health in the studies of Nongogo et al. [66], Hollander [106] and Stroebel, Hay and Bloemhoff [107], while Wegner and Struthers [108], as well as Moll and Bester [109] more specifically to learners with disabilities, asserted that it provides social support and is seen as a driver of social inclusion. In their study on the effect of participation in competitive sports on school connectedness of secondary school students, Kamau, Rintaugu, Muniu, and Amusa [110] concede that school type and school status, and lack of resources had a significant impact on participation in sport. Stroebel, Hay, and Bloemhoff [98, 99, 107] add to this when they conclude that the lack of qualified educators, and the lack of facilities and resources to present school sports, still impede the effective implementation of PESS, which naturally impacts participation or lack thereof. This state of not an only school sport, but also PE, is reflected in the healthy active kids South Africa report card (a research report compiled by a working group of more than 30 academics on the PA and health levels of South African children and youth), reporting that 60% of all learners do not participate in organized school sport, while 68% of learners did not participate in weekly PA [10]. Researchers, such as Eksteen et al. [27], Burnett [111], and Draper et al. [10] listed time constraints, the reluctance of educators to become involved in non-compulsory school activities, workload, inadequate resources, lack of knowledge and expertise, and specialization together with educator qualifications as the main reasons for failure to effectively implement sport in schools.

Viewed through the lens of the SDT, not only the perceptions of the sport of both educators and learners but also their motivational levels were impacted negatively by a failure to satisfy their basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness [47]. Educators felt insecure when PESS periods were assigned to them, simply because they had a free period or time, and their allocated package was not full or no one else was available to coach a particular sport; thus, their need for autonomy was not met, learners often felt they had no choice in the type activities or sport they had to, in some cases forced to do, because of the tradition and beliefs of the school. More than half of the educators involved in sports have received no training and/or are qualified to teach the sport, implying that their need to be equipped with knowledge and skills to effectively coach and teach the sport, thus the need for competence was not met. In addition, lack of training further translates into low motivation, and

inadequate mentoring that is exacerbated by "limited time" and a "heavy workload" [60]. Several learners expressed their dissatisfaction, not being able to learn new skills and techniques, due to educators not being properly, trained or being coached and/or taught by the same coach or educator year in and year out. Regardless of the value of both sport and PE, expressed by both the educators and learners, challenges remain with regard to the implementation sports, which means because there was no internalization, implicit therein, thus no satisfaction of the need for relatedness. In relation to the preceding, findings of research conducted on the effect of PESS needs support educator training [112–114] suggest that participants' perceptions of PESS and motivational levels to teach and coach a sport or to participate have indeed improved after the needs-support educator training.

Seen from the perspective of the social justice framework, it was evident that rural and township schools are not adequately resourced and structured to ensure an enabling environment for learners to have access to quality sport. The issue of training for coaches and those involved with school sport to facilitate sport, or the lack thereof seems to be a mutual challenge. The majority of educators in the better-resourced schools are either qualified as PE specialists, or they have extensive background or experience in sport, as opposed to educators in the lesser-resourced schools that lack the know-how and confidence to offer the sport.

There was a real sense of frustration that so many years into the democratic era in South Africa there are still so many disparities with regard to access, equality, and inclusivity. It is interesting to note that the researchers have observed that existing inequalities are in fact widening between lower ranked and higher ranked quintile schools, and even between schools of the same quantile for that matter. Competition between quintile 4 and 5 schools seems to be having the effect of accelerating infrastructural improvements in these schools that are trying to establish more and better facilities as part of their marketing campaigns, that s, marketing of sport and marketing through sport. However, competition between these schools has led to lesser competitive schools and schools that do not have equal resources (physical, financial, and human) and boast the same number of participants to opt not to participate against those schools anymore, which in turn have led schools who have the same number of participants to seek competition elsewhere, mostly outside the borders of their own province and use inter schools as a means of participation in school sport. The quintile 2 and 3 schools on the other hand would seem content only to dispose of sufficient resources, just to participate, let alone the quality thereof. This is an area that is worthy of further formal inquiry.

Based on the results, it can be inferred that a lack of facilities, training, and relevant funding, as well as substance abuse, is not a new phenomenon globally [115], but also in South Africa. Previous studies by Kubayi et al. [102], Kamau et al. [110], and Stroebel et al. [98, 99] reported that learners growing up in South African townships and rural locations (areas) are marginalized, and unable to participate, because of a lack of adequate and proper, high-quality facilities and proper funding amongst other that do not stimulate or enhance well-organized sport participation practices. Nongogo et al. [66] in particular assert, consistent with findings of this study, that it could be due to an inability of the public schools' (Section 21 Government funded schools) incompetence to obtain and/or secure enough funds to build new and/ or maintain the often-measly available sporting facilities. This should be of great concern to the parents, schools, and the relevant authorities, as research has shown that learners from schools with sufficient resources are more likely to continue participation.

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Unfortunately, various challenges for schools to present quality school sports, still exist. Evidently, discontent toward the DBE is fueled by frustration due to a lack of involvement in resourcing and upgrading facilities as well as human resources. Whilst there are various initiatives directed at the enhancement, emphasis, and importance of the theoretical role and status of school sport, such as personal and social wellbeing, there is certainly not an equivalent for the practical implementation of PE in support of school sport. To this end, social injustice and inequality are still rife, and as such are the playing fields anything but level when comparing access to trained sports and PE educators, equality of resources (physical, human, and financial), and inclusivity, in this case, in terms of providing for boys and girls with equal ability and opportunity to participate in school sport in particular against those (schools and individuals) with the same ability and strength as theirs. The suburban, former Model C school, quintile 4 and 5 schools employ coaches trained specifically for a particular sport or outsourced specialists, and are well resourced, offering several sporting codes, not only as part of the PE program, but also the sport as part of their extra-mural activities and the infrastructure to support these. It is within the preceding context in which school sport and QPE are offered in the former Model C schools. Due to the inadequacy of all resources (physical, financial, human, and information) sport and QPE cannot take place in township, rural, and LSEN schools.

Valuable and valid recommendations can be drawn from the findings of this study to address the situation of QPE and school sports in the Free State, North West, and Northern Cape province, as well as in South Africa. Multiple levels of recommendations are offered by different research cohorts. Despite an awareness amongst all role-players in schools of the health and other benefits of quality, values-driven school sport, educational, social justified sport and PE, strategies need to be put in place to address the implementation challenges facing educators and learners on grassroots level. It can thus be recommended, as has been proposed already by several researchers like Du Toit et al. [116], Van der Merwe [117], Van Deventer [118, 119], and Stroebel et al. [98] to reinstate PE as a stand-alone subject and to make it an examinable subject; ultimately, improving its academic status. Furthermore, as Bloemhoff [120], Eksteen et al. [27], Van der Merwe, Malan and Willemse [121], and Stroebel, Hay, and Bloemhoff [99], have recommended a specialist-trained school sports manager should be employed in all schools by DBE to manage sport in the school as well as to mentor younger and inexperience educators with teaching and coaching PESS in the school. In addition to that, in-service training of LO educators who have to present P.E together with regular up-to-date sport-specific training in all sports codes in all schools inclusive of (LSEN) and of all educators involved in school sports seems eminent to improve educators' perception of PESS school sport, motivation levels and quality of teaching as well as coaching of and involvement in a school sport [99, 107, 122, 123]. Over and above the preceding, should outsourced specialists who teach PESS as part thereof or are entirely involved in coaching, also receive training in basic, sound educational values, and norms to assist them to deliver quality, values-driven school sport, and QPE. For training, thus to be effective it should include strategies and equipment to present creative, needs specific support programs in PESS within the framework of the SDT and social justice framework to equip all with essential knowledge and skills to teach PE and sport proficiently and scientifically. Ultimately teaching PESS requires an athlete-centered long-term strategy to use neuromuscular training from a young age to ensure a reduction in the risk of injury and sportspeople that are able to perform to their maximum with fun and enjoyment [124].

The call from all research participants was quite clear; the DBE needs to prioritize sports and PE at schools by carefully considering the reasons for the low status and the discrepancies that exist between schools with regard to resources (financial, physical, human, and information). Be that as it may, prioritizing sport and PE in schools needs to filter via a unified, collaboration between DBE, SRSA as well as national and provincial sport bodies to the school management team. The plan and strategies forwarded came from those (principals, educators, parents, and learners) who are directly involved and deal with the challenges on a daily basis. However, the action and support need to come from those who impose the programs, principles, and procedures. The alignment and integration of programs delivered by the mentioned stakeholders have the potential to generate opportunities for children in sport, as well as "*place more South Africans on the podium and support the health and wellness of the nation*" [125]. School sport and PE should therefore be addressed in an integrated way at the policy level to ensure articulation between the different ministries, reflecting on the shared roles and responsibilities of each in an endeavor to ensure equal participation opportunities for all through quality, value-based PE programs. Partnerships could be formed between well-resourced schools and disadvantaged schools with the assistance of the former to the latter. A more hands-on approach by DBE should be visible, where it is seen that PESS is taken seriously, training is conducted of roleplayers to lend support to schools with the implementation of PESS, regular visits are conducted to monitor and assist schools and responsibility (ownership) is taken for the physical state with regard to basic facilities and infrastructure, such as ablution facilities and change rooms of under-resourced schools and maintenance of the infrastructure and facilities of those well-resourced schools to create a safe environment in which PESS can take place.

## **5. Conclusion**

The current state and status of school sport in the South African public school system shows that school sport is exceptionally varied, multifaceted, complex, with different pressures and imperatives, and shows an absence of educational accountability. It is exacerbated by a society fraud with social injustice and inequality, politicized driven agendas, and educators who are required to assume the dual role of teaching in the classroom and taking on a further role of sports facilitator or coach within a school environment. Educators are susceptible to a number of accumulating pressures, caused by other organizational and administrative tasks, which result in overload, emotional rollercoaster rides, and lack of motivation. Without meaningful motivation, continuous reform, or revision of policy, the delivery of quality PE and values-driven school sports will remain unachievable, because one thing the research conducted confirmed was *that "the more things change, the more they stay the same.*" Although the "what" that is offered in terms of sport is more or less the same, the "how" it is delivered and "by whom" reveal that inconsistencies still exist between former Model C schools, LSEN schools (in this particular case) and rural and township schools. It is therefore suggested that DBE takes cognizance of the current limited competencies and training for educators in order to enhance their competencies and skills. Upon implementation of a specialist school sports manager (such as a sports director or an overall sports coordinator) to ease the burden on educators, QPE and values-driven, educationally justified school sport, within the UNESCO conceptualization, where its status is valued and integrated into the sport-and health-related

### *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.106812 Sports Participation in South African Schools. Have We Lost the Plot?*

cultures, supportive of life-long learning, and wellness, is indeed possible. It is sad to say, but currently, this is not the case in most South African schools.

Winning the Rugby World Cup (RWC) in 2019 together with the coronavirus, (COVID-19) pandemic, which is the defining global health crisis of our time and the greatest challenge we have faced since World War II, might just be the catalyst to reunite the "Rainbow Nation." Indeed, this would serve as a reminder to all about the main role of school sport to produce learners who are optimally prepared for a responsible contribution to the development of a multicultural South African society and can develop into independent, young men and women who can contribute to the development of a strong value system, free of corruption, social injustice, and fraud along with excellence in governance, leadership, and management.

In conclusion, as Stuart Frankin said at laying the foundation stone of the Reunie Saal (Reunion Hall) in 1928 at Grey College "*if the past is an inspiration, the future is a challenge,*" [126] every person with an interest in education and the development of our country, should accept the challenge to support the development of sport in South Africa by eradicating poverty, reducing inequalities, and building resilience. Each and every South African citizen is therefore called upon to assist in the endeavors of promoting and developing the sport in the interest of every future South African generation, for a healthy, happy, and fulfilling future. Is the current state of school sport reminiscent of a vision loss or one that is embracing the challenge to reunite a Nation divided, where "one size does not fit all?" Hence, can school sports to come out of the woods to ensure a quality of life for all.

## **5.1 Implications for sports policy**

The synergy between DBE and SRSA to ensure meaningful policy review and understanding of diverse school contexts, implementation of school sports, and provision of resources (physical, financial, human, and information) are paramount for strategies to enhance school sports performance, whilst quality sport needs-specific training for all educators and employment of a specialist, trained school sports manager, will pave the way to the more effective development of PE and school sport in all provinces of South Africa, in all schools.

## **Acknowledgements**


## **Author details**

Jacques J. Vosloo1 \* and Dorita du Toit<sup>2</sup>

1 Department of Business Studies, Vuselela TVET College, South Africa

2 Faculty of Education, North-West University, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: vosloo.jacques@yahoo.com

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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## *Edited by Lucy-Joy Wachira*

Participation in fitness and sports activities bestows far-reaching benefits on children's growth, physical and mental development, health, skill acquisition, and physical performance. Besides the typical description of common concepts, subjects, and general literature, this book presents a variety of topics associated with physical activity and fitness among children and youth. Work presented in this book ranges from complex descriptions of the role of vitamin D deficiency on children's physical activity and lifelong health to the analyses of the role of motor proficiency among children with an autism spectrum disorder. Some authors report on the association between physical activity and fitness and cognitive function among children while others describe noted differences in selected physical fitness components among children over a span of 30 years. The book also provides empirical insights into the role and status of school sports. While the feasibility and benefits of designed programmes and organized school activities have been demonstrated, the need for targeted specialized interventions and additional knowledge underpins the need for multidisciplinary and inter-sectoral approaches when working with children.

Published in London, UK © 2023 IntechOpen © pmcdonald / iStock

Sport and Fitness in Children and Adolescents - A Multidimensional View

Sport and Fitness

in Children and Adolescents

A Multidimensional View

*Edited by Lucy-Joy Wachira*