**5. Conclusions**

This analysis using *C. spinarum* as a case study of a medicinal species illustrates that it has been identified in ethnodirected bioprospecting studies and other forms of ethnobiological research across three continents. Most of the research is categorised as Phase I in Hunn's classification of ethnobiology with little contextual or ethnographic content. Where emic perspectives on the use of this species are reported, it is seen to profoundly alter the perspective of the reader on the use of this and other species within the study community. However, even a minimal "thin description" is lacking in most of the ethnobotanical research, where lists of EM species may be recorded without information on the plant part used, or on the preparation or administration of the plant remedy. The omission of such essential data can invalidate the documentation

of ethnobotanical data whatever the purpose, whether cultural record, health care provision, sustainable plant use, environmental protection or bioprospecting.

There is more to be learned about this species and the many other species of broad biocultural value through the design and funding of research which allows local meanings and values to emerge. A more nuanced understanding of its meaning for indigenous people and local communities may be illuminated through study designs that incorporate a blending of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies as proposed in best practice documents in ethnobiology and in ethnopharmacology. A partnership approach with local communities can make for more ethical as well as more fruitful research. Allied to this, is the aim of trans-disciplinarity in ethnobiological research. Such a research process could reveal local ways of knowing biodiversity and environment beyond the categories of utility commonly captured in natural science-directed ethnobotanical research.

The evidence of the current analysis of the ethnobotany of *C. spinarum* illustrates that such an approach is essential to ethical, sustainable, and effective ethnobiological research of this and other culturally valued species. A move beyond the current obstacles to collaborative research is needed to examine in meaningful and effective ways how people interact with plants and the wider environment in response to health challenges with dynamism and creativity.
