**1. Introduction**

Soils are the basis for sustainable production and the supply of nutrients to plants. The general aspects of soils and sustainability are as follows—soils are part of a fragile natural environment, so it is important to understand how they are formed and sustained, as well as how they relate to agriculture, forestry, ecology, conservation, and other areas of knowledge [1]. The variability of soil nutrients is affected to different degrees by soil formation factors. These factors, declared by Jenny are parent material, relief, climate, time, and potential biota [2]. Soil is considered an open and non-equilibrium system [2, 3]. The effect of humans on soil systems must be studied in the future to find new solutions to conserve the planet [2]. Furthermore, macronutrient stocks of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) show significant spatial and temporal variability in soil [4].

Sustainability in pasture soils—environmental sustainability tends to reduce the inputs required for animal production by making more efficient use of internal resources. In this case, the correct management of pasture productivity may contribute [5] because the rational application of fertilisers and amendments helps in reducing nutrient leaching, and also, it could limit greenhouse gas emissions of CO2, nitrogen, and others. In general terms, grassland soils can contribute to maintain the existence of carbon at least in the first cm of soil from the surface.

To contribute to sustainability, it is important to maintain grassland carrying capacities, use organic sources, and implement conservation practices—like to sow different kinds of trees or even to maintain the diversity of species, looking to contribute to conserve the soil is a key to any kind of system of production in agriculture. Sustainable soil management is key to achieving several SDGs (sustainable development goals) due to the dependence on plant production or different soil processes. Furthermore, agricultural research programmes should contribute to healthier soils [1].

Nutrient cycling in pastures: CH4 and N2O emissions need to be reduced from the livestock systems, and soil organic carbon (SOC) must be conserved [6]. Rational fertiliser programmes contribute to optimising grassland management systems to minimise environmental impacts and maximise pasture productivity.

Availability of nutrients in soils and fertilisation program—chemical elements for plant nutrition have high spatial variability, especially in agricultural soils [7]. It is essential to know the chemical properties of soils to be able to identify areas that require management practices.

Impact of cattle farming on soil fertility—international reports on the impact of cattle farming on soil nutrient conservation have shown that dairy farming extracts at least 2.5 times more nutrients, such as N, P, K, Ca, and S than beef farming [8]. Although cattle systems can provide some nutrients and contribute to maintaining soil fertility, which can reduce the use of amendments and fertilisers [9].

General description of soils in Antioquia—according to the general soil survey, soils in Antioquia are very variable in terms of their parent materials, relief and climate. There are soil orders with different degrees of paedogenetic evolution—soils with a deficiency in paedogenetic evolution such as Entisols, soils with a low degree of evolution specifically Inceptisols and several have mixed evolution including Andisols and Mollisols. The main factors limiting the use and management of soils in Antioquia are the slopes which range from slightly steep to very steep, erosion, extreme values of moisture content, acid reaction, high aluminium saturation, and low to very low fertility. Some alluvial valleys and piedmont landscape soils have moderate to high fertility [10].
