**1. Introduction**

When discussing smart mobility, there is an ever-increasing presence of autonomous vehicles (AVs) on the roadway and in development. Interest in the design and implementation of AVs increases each year as this innovative technology is applied to new contexts and user groups [1]. While there are many specifics that could be discussed regarding the hardware and function of AVs, this chapter will focus on parents' opinions of the use of AVs for their teenage children in various contexts and transportation scenarios.

The design and intended use of any vehicle largely depends on the user group the vehicle is targeted at. In the case of AVs, specific applications such as the creation of an innovative personal vehicle or improved long-haul trucking have received attention in recent years [2, 3]. Applications such as a shared autonomous bus (AB) or autonomous shuttle (AS) have also been examined both theoretically and in practice with potential riders [4–6]. Potential benefits for the implementation of AV on the roadways include an increase in safety and convenience, as well as the possibility of increased mobility [7, 8]. Automation makes the very inaccessible task of driving available to many groups who are currently unable to drive or have limited access to driving such as the elderly, disabled individuals, and children [7]. While some research examines the potential for this mobility increase, one particular area that has yet to be explored thoroughly concerns family mobility and the potential for AVs to increase it.

When considering the transportation of children of all ages in an AV, the relationship between parents and children's mobility must be examined. Generally, children have a large number of transportation needs such as school, extracurriculars, and social activities. For a number of reasons, parents are reliant on their personal vehicles to meet all of their families transportation needs, often seeing personal vehicle use as the only acceptable way to take their children to activities [9, 10]. In the context of school, the number of children who are able to transport themselves through walking or biking has decreased drastically over time due to increasing travel distances and parent concern regarding traffic dangers [11, 12]. Children who live close to their school are often still driven by a parent out of concern for the child's safety [13]. Even while many parents report issues managing these rides alongside their work and personal transportation needs, many still elect to transport their children personally [13, 14].

After school, tasks like extracurriculars, medical appointments, and social events add even more trips to a family's schedule. The use of public transportation options brings up concerns of safety with strangers and the difficulty of navigating some systems, while considering that many of these options do not allow unaccompanied minors [10]. Even rideshare services which utilize a private vehicle, such as Uber, do not allow for the transportation of unaccompanied children [15, 16]. For many families, a personal vehicle is the only available transportation method that meets the need for convenience and flexibility, while also quelling parent safety concerns. The option of utilizing an AV offers a solution to help lighten the load of transportation needs on the parent, while addressing many of their concerns regarding other methods of transportation.

In order to offer this potential solution to parents, AVs must be designed with parent concerns in mind. Prior research has suggested that parents are gatekeepers to this mobility and dictate the methods by which their children travel and therefore must feel that their children are safe in an AV [8, 17, 18]. Some research has been conducted to examine parent opinions of transporting young children in AVs independently which has uncovered several perceived concerns and benefits from parent groups. Prior literature suggests that parents were most interested in the possibility that this presented a convenient option to transport their children when they are unable to drive and that their children could carpool with other families children [8, 18, 19]. Excluding general barriers to acceptance of AV such as hacking, parents were often concerned about child maturity level and the distance of the journey [19]. Reported concerns about child safety included issues of how the AV would respond to threats and ensuring that a child gets to their final destination after exiting the vehicle [8].

Additionally, issues of technological acceptance and social desirability may play a role in parents' standpoint on transporting their children in AVs [20, 21]. Previous research suggests that children influence parent's decisions to adopt digital technologies [22]. Adoption of technology refers to an individual deciding to make use of a technology in their lives [23]. In this case, early adoption would refer to individuals who decide to use new technologies before the majority of the population. Parents who identify with this concept of early adoption may be more likely to make use of AVs, as they are an emerging technology.

When considering child transportation, teenagers present a unique challenge. Teenagers have more transportation needs than young children, as many have the addition of a work schedule and increased social obligations, but many are able to drive themselves after the age of 15 depending on the state. Despite this vastly different scenario, there is no research solely focused on transporting teenagers in AVs. Due to their ability to become licensed, it may be thought that teenagers have a lesser need for AVs than young children, but teenagers would also benefit from this technology in unique ways.

One way that parents overcome traditional barriers to child mobility is encouraging their teenagers to receive learner's permits. Whether parents are busy or simply do not want to drive their older children around, learning to drive removes the need for a parent to be involved in their transportation. This also creates another driver in the family to transport younger children or individuals in the family who are unable to drive. Unfortunately, teenagers are among the most high-risk drivers. Some of this is due to lack of experience, but teenagers are also more likely to exhibit risk-taking behavior than their adult counterparts [24, 25]. CDC data collected from 2016 to 2017 shows that 16 year-old drivers were 1.5 times more likely to have an accident per mile driven than drivers in the 18–19 year-old category [26]. While some may attribute this to driving experience, it has also been found that teenagers who waited longer to obtain their learner's permits were shown to exhibit less risky driving behavior [27]. This suggests that the difference in driving behavior and accident rates are due to more than just experience gained. Adoption of AV transportation would lessen the need for these teenagers to get licensed as soon as they are of age while still offering independent mobility.

Teenagers who have already been licensed would also benefit from this technology, as they fall under the same high accident and risky driving behavior statistics. In the case of these teenagers, or teenagers who would still like to get their license and use an AV, this would create a unique group of users who are qualified to drive the vehicle should an emergency arise that requires a driver. Parents may also feel safer transporting young children in AVs if an older, teenaged sibling is there to monitor the ride, enforce safety rules, and ensure that the younger child reaches their destination. Overall, the use of personal AVs for transporting teenagers would greatly increase the entire family's mobility. To make this a reality for families, the needs and wants of parents must be addressed first.

The current study is an attempt to begin to understand parent opinions on transporting teenagers in AVs unaccompanied. Parent willingness will be measured, along with data regarding their child's transportation needs and driving habits. Additionally, parent opinions on teenagers using AV as a way to delay the need to drive will be examined.
