**4. Application-dependent chemistry-specific battery lifecycle performance assessment**

Development lifecycle of a battery includes the following phases: material extraction, processing, manufacturing, and assembly, use phase, and end-of-life phase. Assessment of this lifecycle is performed by evaluating the battery chemistry for the intended application using Cradle-to-gate and Cradle-to-grave analysis techniques [4, 9]. The Cradle-to-gate technique covers the upstream and production phases, while the Cradle-to-grave technique includes additional downstream phases, as shown in **Figure 5**. In this study, Cradle-to-gate LCA is performed to identify the energy consumption and environmental impact of a battery chemistry from research and development to commercialization for both an EV and a RES battery. Here, the impact in transportation of batteries is not taken into consideration. The evaluated chemistries are limited to Li-based, Pb-Acid, Ni-MH, Na-S, and VRB. Each chemistry is evaluated for five case studies.


#### **Table 4.**

*A primary school and a hospital BES capacity sizing based on load profiles in year 2004.* *Sizing and Lifecycle Assessment of Electrochemical Batteries for Electric Vehicles… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110121*

**Figure 5.** *RES and EV battery lifecycle phases.*

$$\text{C2G/kWh} = \frac{\text{C2G/Kg} \ast \text{C}\_b \ast m}{E\_{lj\epsilon}},\tag{19}$$

$$\text{where, } \text{C}\_b = \begin{cases} \frac{10}{\mathcal{L}\_{av}}, \text{if } \text{C}\_{10} < \mathcal{L}\_{10} \\\frac{\text{C}\_{10}}{\mathcal{L}\_{10}}, \text{otherwise}, \end{cases}$$

$$m = \frac{\text{E}\_{res}}{\text{e}\_{av}},$$

$$\text{E}\_{res} = \frac{\text{E}\_{av}}{\sqrt{\eta\_{rl}} \ast \text{DOD}},$$

$$\text{E}\_{lj\epsilon} = \text{E}\_{av} \ast \text{C}\_{10}$$

Apart from application type categorization, the case studies are majorly divided on the basis of DOD of the battery, which indicate its applicability of operation for the EV or RES application. In RES–based applications, grid services operations are categorized into short (Voltage, Frequency Stability, and Interruption response), medium (Spinning reserve, peak shaving, and contingency reserve), and long duration (load shifting, and energy arbitrage) services [127, 128]. A DOD of 0.2 and 0.8 are selected for short and long duration operations, respectively. For EV storage applications, a medium DOD of 0.5 is selected because of the variation in driving patterns of an EV user, resulting in extreme contrasts (high or low) in consumption from user to user. Case studies use the equations in (19), results for which, along with each parameter's values, are tabulated in **Table 5**. In **Table 5**, the applicationspecific/�dependent parameters are *Eav*: Average Application Energy (in kWh), C10: Number of cycles demanded by the application in 10 years [129, 130], DOD%: Depth of Discharge %, and *Elife*: Lifetime Energy Delivered (in kWh). The chemistry-specific/�dependent parameters are *ɳrt*: Average Round-trip Efficiency [96, 131, 132], *av*: Average Specific Energy (in kWh/Kg); L<sup>80</sup> :Average Cycle Life of battery at 80% DOD in its lifetime [97, 131, 132], L*av* :Average Calendar Life (in Years) [131], C2G/Kg: Cradle-to-gate impact of battery (in KJ/Kg) [133], C*b*: Number of batteries used in 10 years' time scale, *Eres*: Resulting System Size (in kWh), *m*: Battery Mass (in Kg), and C2G/kWh: Cradle-to-gate impact of battery (in KJ/kWh). The *Eav*, C10, DOD%, and *Elife* are the application-specific parameters and *ɳrt*, *av*, L80,


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**Table 5.** *Selectedchemistry-specific*

 *LCA of* 

*commercialized*

 *battery energy storage systems.* *Sizing and Lifecycle Assessment of Electrochemical Batteries for Electric Vehicles… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.110121*

**Figure 6.** *Case study versus cradle-to-gate lifecycle phase impact of selected chemistries.*

L*av*, C2G/Kg, C*b*, *Eres*, *m*, and C2G/kWh are chemistry-specific parameters. *av* values are obtained from **Tables 1** and **2**, while *Eav* values are from Sections 3.1 and 3.2. Other parameters are obtained from [97, 129–135].

The resulting Cradle-to-gate lifecycle phase impact of all the chemistries shown in **Figure 6** indicate that the Pb-Acid chemistry has the highest C2G/kWh value for EV applications and Ni-MH has the highest C2G/kWh value for RES applications. Overall, it can also be noticed that the case studies with increased DOD (II and IV) have the lowest impact in the Cradle-to-gate phases.
