The Environmental Geochemical Baseline Survey

## **Chapter 5**

Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment for Base Metal, Prieska, Northern Cape, South Africa

*Nthabiseng Mashale*

## **Abstract**

The Areachap Terrane, which is part of the Namaqua Sector of the Namaqua-Natal Belt in the Northern Cape Province, host volcanic-hosted Zn-Cu deposits at volcanic centres. The primary objective was to map Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS) mineralisation, determine the heavy metal contents of sediments, locate the source of anomalies and delineate targets for follow-up studies. Nine thousand three hundred and fourteen stream sediments samples collected were analysed using XRF. The element associated with their respective lithostratigraphy was calculated using spatial joint analysis tool. ArcGIS was used to display uni-elements maps and relevant multielement maps. The delineated potential VMS mineralisation target is considered for further follow-up study. The M23 and M24 anomalies are delineated for Cu\_Ni mineralisation. M23 and M24 anomalies are sourced from ultramafic debris transported from the Ghaap Group; however, this potential target will require followup studies for verification. The correlation between the Cu-Pb-Zn anomaly with alkali elements (Nb, Zr, Th, and U) and REEs (in Table 9) suggests there is a possibility that the M26–M29 anomaly is alkali-granitic genetic origin. The As, Ba, Ce, Cr, Cu, Hf, Nd, Ni, Rb, Sr., S, V, Zr and Zn contents showed a heterogeneous spatial distribution, reflected by high coefficient of variation and large standard deviation.

**Keywords:** geochemical signature, mineralisation, base metals, uni-elements maps, multi-element maps, follow-up study

## **1. Introduction**

The Republic of South Africa (RSA) is known to be among one of the world's most active mining countries. RSA hosts several deposits such as gold deposits in the Witwatersrand basin, diamond deposits in Kimberly, Platinum group elements (PGE) in the Bushveld Complex and Manganese deposits in the Griqualand West Basin, all to which, to some extent they control the economy of the country [1].

The Namaqua-Natal Metamorphic Province, particularly the Namaqua Sector has proven to be the remarkable mineralised sector in the country hosting Copperton deposit, which according to [2], and [3] is one of the world's giant Volcanic Hosted Massive Sulphide (VHMS) deposit.

The Namaqua-Natal Metamorphic Province (NNMP) is a tectonostratigraphic province that stretches 1400 km across South Africa, it extensively outcrops in the Northern Cape Province and Kwa-Zulu Natal Province and referred as Namaqua and Natal Sectors respectively and in Namibia. NNMP embrace igneous and metamorphic rocks formed or metamorphosed during the Namaqua Orogeny at 1200 Ma–1000 Ma. It is 400 km wide and has borders with the Kaapvaal Craton to the north and Pan-African (Gariep and Saldania) belts in the west and south [4, 5].

The Namaqua Sector of the Namaqua-Natal Province is subdivided into a number of distinct, discontinuity-bounded domains: Richtersveld Subprovince, Bushmanland Terrane, Gordonia Terrane, and Kaaien Terrane (**Figure 1**; [6]). The Location of the study area is in western degree of the 2922 Prieska sheet, Northern Cape Province, South Africa (**Figure 1**).

The small portion of Kaapvaal Craton is part of the study area (**Figure 1**). The preserved basin on the Kaapvaal Craton, which is the part of the study area of this research, is Griqualand-West basin. The westernmost of Griqualand West basin exposures at the eastern edge of the Kheis Belt, thrust and fold belt that post-dates younger Olifantshoek red beds. In its extreme, south the Griqualand-West strata are truncated by later dextral shearing on the Brakbosch and Brulpan faults [6].

Geochemical data combined with mineralogical and other additional data sets such as geologic maps, mineral distribution, geophysical methods, among others, provides a foundation for classifying and evaluating mineral resource endowment and natural hazards. A mineral resource produces diagnostic textural, geologic, geophysical, and geochemical signatures when exposed at or near the surface of the earth. Geochemical exploration is based on outlining such dispersion halos and in the present study that will be done by chemical analyses of stream-drainage sediments.

There is different between regional and detailed surveys in terms objective, size of area being surveyed, sampling density, type and of material sampled. Ginsburg [7]

#### **Figure 1.**

*Map of Southern Africa showing Pan-African orogenic belts, NNP, Kheis Province and Kaapvaal craton [6].*

*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

recognised three scales of geochemical mapping and surveys depending on purpose and objective, namely, reconnaissance, prospecting and detailed. Regional survey can be conveniently discussed based on the number of stream sediment samples taken per square kilometres [8].

Regional geochemical mapping has been part of the core mapping function of the Council for Geoscience (CGS) since the 1970s. The Regional geochemical mapping program follow a systematic approach focussed on providing high quality- and high density datasets that will contribute to resolving issues relevant to modern South African geological society, namely, exploration, geological mapping, groundwater, environmental studies, and geological modelling. The principal objective of this geochemical orientation survey is to define the patterns of primary and secondary dispersion occurring in the study area particularly those of economically and environmentally interesting elements.

#### **1.1 Research problem**

The stream sediments composition of the research are is poorly understood. Mobility of the different elements varies considerably because of factors such as adsorption and Eh-pH conditions. Stream sediments programs worldwide had discovered numerous deposits.

### **1.2 Justification**

The geochemical patterns obtained from this study will enable to link elements deficiencies and abundances with the underlying geology, structures and known mineral occurrences and mines. This will assist in tracing the source of anomalies encountered on stream sediments and delineate targets for follow-up studies within the Orange River catchment area.

#### **1.3 Objectives of the study**

#### *1.3.1 Main objectives*

The primary aim of this study is to map the VMS mineralisation potential of the Prieska area using the stream sediment data, determine geochemistry of stream sediments within the Orange River catchment area. This will enable the recognition of anomalies within the catchment area and trace their sources.

#### *1.3.2 Specific objectives*

The following specific objectives need to be met:


## **1.4 Hypothesis**


### **1.5 Regional reconnaissance stream sediments survey history around the world**

Large areas may be successfully explored using stream sediments geochemistry for indications of individual mineral deposits, groups of occurrences, or favourable geological environments. Sampling density ranges from one sample per 1 km<sup>2</sup> to one per 25 km<sup>2</sup> depending upon the type of target and drainage characteristics, and inherent in the reconnaissance concept is the need for more detailed sampling to determine the significance of regional anomalies [9, 10]. The government agencies, Council for Geological Survey and mining companies are mostly responsible to carry out Regional stream sediments surveys. Successful stream sediments surveys conducted around the globe.

The Geological Survey of Zambia in Africa employed regional and provincial scale geochemical mapping in systematic geological mapping. Analyses were for 20 elements by semi quantitative XRF. The Institute of Mining Research at the University of Zimbabwe (formerly known as Rhodesia) had been active in regional geochemical research projects since 1976. Some of the studies done by the institute include a regional stream sediment reconnaissance of 1350 km<sup>2</sup> of the Sabi Tribal Trust Land at a density of one sample per km<sup>2</sup> [11], and a survey of 1664 km<sup>2</sup> near West Nicholson, Zimbabwe, at same density [12] employing multi-element in both cases. In southern Africa, most mining companies devote a greater effort to regional soil sampling than to drainage reconnaissance and it had been estimated that more than 95% of samples collected by the major companies in 1973 were taken from soil grids [13].

In Australia, during 1976, there was a low level of activity as only 4250 stream sediments were collected; the number was expected to decline in 1977. Nevertheless, in the more favourable humid zones most mineral exploration companies make fixed use of regional stream sediment sampling since stream sediments are of limited use in the more arid regions because of low density of drainage and dilution by the windblown material. Two size fractions approach may be employed in arid regions, minus-120 mesh and minus-4-plus 16 mesh with coarser fraction containing gossan fragments and multiple grains cemented by metal-rich iron hydroxides [10].

In southern British Columbia portion and Yukon during 1976, Stream sediments sampling took place over an area of 75,000 km<sup>2</sup> (Cameroon, 1976). According to Meyer et al. [10], Smee and Ballantyne [14] reported that the British Columbia portion of the program covered 46,800 km<sup>2</sup> at a mean density of one sample per 13 km<sup>2</sup> and in the Yukon 2200 stations were sampled over an area of 28,490 km<sup>2</sup> , giving the same degree of coverage. More than 90% of stream sediment activities of the Geological Survey of Canada and Federal-Provincial Uranium Reconnaissance Program that commenced in 1975 are related. Rose and Keith [15] concluded that stream sediments were preferable to water for reconnaissance drainage surveys for uranium for eastern Pennsylvania.

*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

## **2. Methodology**

Several techniques including geological mapping and stream sediments geochemistry were used to investigate stream sediments geochemical patterns of the Orange River catchment prospecting area in order to accomplish the goals and objectives set out for this study. A descriptive methodology is summarised in the below flow chart (**Figure 2**). The steps followed in order to achieve the objectives of this study are desktop study, reconnaissance survey, fieldwork, laboratory work, data analysis and interpretation, discussion, conclusions and recommendations.

## **2.1 Desktop study**

In order to acquire first-hand information about the study area. Prior to field visit, the information from previous work on geology, nature of mineralisation and previous exploration conducted in the Orange River catchment prospect is studied. Information is sources from Books, unpublished technical reports, geological reports, topographical maps, journals and internet sources.

## **2.2 Fieldwork**

A reconnaissance survey was undertaken prior to detailed or actual fieldwork. During this, a snap survey of geology, vegetation, and accessibility of the study area was undertaken. The aim is to locate the ground, target areas indicated by outcrops of

**Figure 2.** *Flow chart indicating methods and procedures applied during the study.*

different lithologies. The general attitudes of lithologies at the prospects, rock outcrops, and quantity of samples and duration of fieldwork were established. Additionally, a thorough study of topography, vegetation, pedology, drainage patterns and characteristics of rocks was also to gather as much information as possible in the study area. Stream distribution was also assessed which drain into the Orange River catchment prospect.

Field observations were transferred to a base map before being digitised using ArcGIS 10.3.1. The observations were transferred to a field base map; using diverse colours to discriminate the streams distribution mapped in the area. The spatial extent of each lithology and lithology contacts as well as stream distribution were trace on the map. Field notes includes describing the coordinates and nature of contact with other rock types and soil colour where there is limited outcrops.

## **2.3 Laboratory work**

The sample analysis was conducted by the Council for Geoscience (CGS) laboratory in Pretoria. Sieve shaker, drying oven, atomic absorption spectrometry (Perkin Elmer Analyst 400, AAS), PANanalytical-Axios XRF were used for sample preparation and analysis.

## *2.3.1 Sample preparation*

This section describes the methods used to prepare stream sediments samples collected from the Orange River catchment prospect for laboratory analysis.

## *2.3.1.1 Drying and milling*

Samples are oven dried at 105–110 °C. Once completely dry, samples were first sieved through a 2 mm sieve to remove gravels and organic materials and subsequently sieved through a 125 μm fraction size and milled to 85% -75 μm. The milled samples were placed in labelled sample bags ready for analysis.

## *2.3.2 Sample analysis*

The prime requirement for mineral exploration survey is the availability of analytical procedures capable of high precision, low detection limit and acceptable accuracy.

## *2.3.2.1 Stream sediments geochemical analysis using XRF*

The PANanalytical-Axios XRF was used for geochemical analysis of stream sediments. The milled samples roasted at 1000 °C for at least three hours in order to oxidise Fe2+ and S and to determine loss of ignition (LOI). Glass disks for XRF analysis were prepared by fusing 1 g sample and 8 g of flux (35% LiBO2 and 64.71% Li2B4O7) at 1050 °C for major element analysis. Major element oxides (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3t, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5 and Cr2O3) and trace element (Ni, Cu, Co, As, Zn, Pb, Cr, Ba, Sc, Sr., V, Th, U, Y, Zr) were analysed.

Trace element analysis was achieved by mixing 12 g milled sample and a 3 g Hoechst wax and then pressing into a powder briquette by a hydraulic press with the applied pressure at 25 ton. The glass disks and wax pellets were analysed by PANalytical-Axios XRF. XRF has the advantage of being non-destructive, multi-elemental, fast and cost

*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

effective compared to other competitive techniques such as Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (ASS) or Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometry (ICP OES).

X-rays are produced by irradiating a sample with high energy photons produced by primary X-ray tube. When a high energy primary X-ray collides with an atom, an electron can be ejected from a low energy level creating an electron vacancy. When an electron from a higher energy level fills the vacancy, a secondary X-ray is created characteristic of that element. XRF analysis devices can be largely categorised into wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (WDX) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX). WDX disperses the fluorescent X-ray generated in the sample using dispersion crystal and measures it using a goniometer, resulting in a large size. The detector in EDX on the other hand, has a superior energy resolution and requires no dispersion system, which enable downsizing of the device. Interaction of X-rays with sample creates secondary diffracted beams of X-rays related to inter-planner spacing in the crystalline powder according Bragg's Law:

$$n\lambda = 2d\sin\theta \tag{1}$$

Where: n is an integer, λ is the wavelength of X-rays; d is the inter-planar spacing generating the diffraction and is the*θ* diffraction angle.

The XRF was calibrated by identification of optimum conditions of several variable factors for each element, like identifying correct elemental peak and background, pulse height, collimator mask, counting time, dead time, followed by matrix and inter-element interference corrections. This was achieved by repeated analysis of certified reference material and correcting the variables to yield elemental concentration close to known values. This included 12/76 (amphibolite standard).

The weighted inverse distance interpolation (IDW) method was used to convert point XRF data into continuous geochemical maps using ArcGIS, the IDW parameters used were: power = 2, maximum neighbours = 15, minimum neighbours = 10, cell Size = Maximum of Inputs.

#### *2.3.3 Quality control and quality assurance*

It is vitally important that an analysis is precise but the accuracy is not generally so crucial, although some indication of accuracy is needed for most purposes in mineral exploration [16]. Quality assurance program should aim to assess the quality and accuracy at all stages of measurement process, from site selection and sampling through sample handling, preparation and analysis. Subsequently, a quality control/ quality assurance See **Table 1** for the results of the reference material and lower limit of detection for each element. The glass disk R422 was analysed firstly with the calibration standards and then every 12 hours during analysis of the sample. The three sediment reference material GSD-9, GSD-11 and GSD-14 were repeatedly analysed every 30 samples to evaluate the precision of the analysis, **Table 1** summaries the results of the reference material and each lower detection limit of each element.

The statistical tests of standard samples repeatability can be based on replicate assays of a certified standard in one laboratory or, conversely, inter laboratory analyses. Blank samples for materials that have very low grade of a metal of interest are usually inserted in a batch of samples being processed. The main purpose of using blanks is to monitor laboratory for a possible contamination of samples, which are mainly caused by poor housekeeping, and insufficient thorough cleaning of equipment.


#### *Geochemistry and Mineral Resources*


*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

> **Table 1.** *TheLowerlimit*

 *of detection (LLD) of each element and the reference material obtained results.*

#### *2.3.4 Data processing and evaluation*

Analytical data processing aims, firstly, at reducing random and/or systematic errors resulting from field survey and/or laboratory analysis, and secondly, at identifying whether the data contain some useful information indicating the source, pathway and trap of coal concentrations in the study area. The careful analysis of such data, using standard computer software packages, is an important and affordable way of adding value to an exploration programme.

## *2.3.4.1 Statistical data analysis*

Statistical methods have been widely applied to interpret analytical data sets and define anomalies. However, such methods need to be used cautiously since the data are typically and spatially dependent on each sample site and a range of different processes that may have influenced the element abundance measured. The data are also imprecise because of unavoidable variability in sampling methods and media and the level of analytical precision.

Moon [16] indicated that the aim of mineral exploration is to define significant anomalies. Anomalies are defined by statistically grouping data and comparing these with geology and sampling information. Strong anomalies detected may be for instance due to a combination of factors such as sampling and analytical errors, or contaminations which do not represent mineralisation. The absence of anomaly on the other hand may not necessarily mean the absence of mineralisation in the area of study. Such absence may be due to low rate of weathering in the area, buried or blind mineralisation, or dilution between source and sample site [17].

The use of descriptive statistics helps us to simplify large amounts of data into a simpler summary. Numerical and graphical methods are the two commonly used methods. Numerical method enables one to compute statistics such as mean and standard deviation while, graphical methods are better suited than numerical for identifying patterns in the data sets. The numerical and graphical methods complement each other and it is therefore wise to use both. Consequently, histograms, and summary statistical information were used in this study to identify patterns in data sets. According to Riemann et al. [18], a graphical inspection of analytical data is necessary as the first step in data analysis. The best means of statistical grouping data is graphical examination using histograms and box plots [19, 20].

## **3. Data presentation and interpretation**

The geology map retrieved from the CGS database, was compiled on ArcGIS software (**Figure 3**). The area is comprised of the Transvaal Sequence, Olifantshoek Supergroup, Kaaien Terrane, Areachap Group and Karoo Supergroup. The Transvaal Sequence is confined to the north-central part of the Kaapvaal Craton [21]. It overlies the Witwatersrand foreland basin (Supergroup) and is overlain by Bushveld Complex [21]. The three basins – the Transvaal basin, and Griqualand West basin, in South Africa, and the Kanye basin in Botswana basins are preserved on the Kaapvaal Craton [21].

*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

**Figure 3.** *The Geology of the Prieska map.*

#### **3.1 Univariate stream sediment geochemistry**

The geochemical data was transformed into a raster data with a cell size of 1 km using weighted inverse distance interpolation method. A maximum of four points were used to calculate a value for each cell location. First, the raster maps of the unielements were visualised in ArcGIS and compared to the underlying geology and known base metal occurrences. Univariate statistical methods was used to extract information from a data set of values for a single element, frequency histograms are created using GIS geostastical analyst tool, to examine the frequency distribution and identify the type of distribution, the all elements Histograms are on none transformation.

The only elements that correlates (**Table 2**) importantly with the known base metals occurrence in Prieska area as discussed in this section. The copper, lead, zinc, gold and silver minerals are associated with Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide (VMS) deposits. Prieska area is underlain by the Areachap Terrane, known to host VMS and Sedimentary exhalative deposit (SEDEX) deposits, including the mined out Copperton deposit, approximately 10 km southwest of the Prieska town. The Areachap terrane is overlain by up to 100 m of Karoo sediments that limited historical exploration.

The elemental distribution maps are plotted using the Jenks natural classification system. The elemental population is classified into five break points;

1.The first break is minimum to mean value, and

2. Second break is from mean to (mean plus standard deviation) value, the first two break are regarded as a background value, values above the threshold calculates **Table 3** are anomalous,


#### *Geochemistry and Mineral Resources*

*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

## **Table 2.**

*The summary statistics of all the analysed elements.*


#### *Geochemistry and Mineral Resources*


*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment … DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

 *Matrix.*

**Table 3.** *Correlation*


The primary aim of the exploration target generation is twofold; to generate new areas for exploration activity where favourable geology and no mineral occurrences are coincident, and secondly a rethink in areas of known mineralisation on the possibilities of other styles or models of mineralisation. The geology of Prieska area and the geochemistry was joined using the Analysis tool spatial joint; the aim is to calculate the mean values of Uni-element of the lithostratigraphic unit. **Table 4** below refers to the lithostratigraphic unit with their associated elements. Based on [22] the five Fuzzy operators are useful for combining exploration datasets, Fuzzy AND, OR, Algebraic product, algebraic sum and γ-operator. In this study Fuzzy OR operation was applied to combine maps of relevant indicator elements associated with the geology (**Table 4**).

The elements of the highest mean averages associated with the Spioenkop Formation is the Cu, Ga, Zn and Rb (**Figure 4**). Cu and Zn correlates very strong at the correlation coefficient of 0.97. The distribution of the two elements strongly correlated with the known VMS Copperton deposit. **Figures 5**–**7** displays a Fuzzy OR overlap multi-element map of Cu, Ga, Zn and Rb. The map index poorly delineate Spioenkop Formation, the second dispersion occur in Uitdraai Formation, Jacomyns pan Formation, Globershoop, and Spioenkop Formation. The observed mineralisation potential areas are M1 and M2. The M1 anomaly is associated with the known mine area named Copperton Deposit, Prieska mine, the M1 anomaly is overlaying the Kalahari and Dwyka Group The Prieska Cu\_Zn is known as the VMS deposit, the most common commodities or minerals exploited in this area are the Zinc, Copper and Sphalerite. The Mine known as a medium scale abandoned mine. The M2 anomaly is in close vicinity to the Orange River catchment, the anomaly is overlaying the Campbellrand subgroup. Campbell Rand Subgroup belongs to the Ghaap Group. The base mineralisation have been recorded in Ghaap Group is Pering deposit far


#### **Table 4.**

*Relevant indicator elements associated with the geology.*

*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

**Figure 4.** *Fuzzy OR overlay multi-element map index of Cu, Ga, Zn, and Rb.*

**Figure 5.** *The Fuzzy OR overlay map for Cu\_Zn index.*

#### **Figure 6.**

*The Fuzzy OR overlay map for Ni, Co and Cr index.*

**Figure 7.** *The Fuzzy OR overlay of Zr\_Nb\_U\_Th\_Hf\_Ta.*

*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

northeast about 150 km from the study area. The Host rocks to Zn–Pb mineralisation on the Ghaap Plateau are stromatolitic dolomites, with minor oolitic dolomites, chert and carbonaceous shale beds of the Campbell Rand Subgroup (Gutzmer, 2006). The occurrence of the M2 potential mineralisation zones requires follow-up studies.

There is a very strong correlation between the Co and Ni, and moderate to strong correlation between Co and Cr indicator elements. The correlations of Co-Ni-Cr are the indicator of mafic- ultramafic geological index. The strong correlation between Co and Ni can also indicate the base metal mineraization. The Ni-Co covers the sulphides and oxides of interest (Co-Ni-Cr) in ultramafic rocks. Co-Ni is a pathfinder of Ni-Cu.

The anomaly M3 – M7 (**Figure 8**) are Co-Ni high values. The M3 potential mineralisation area to the west of Prieska town covers the Dwyka Group, this mineralisation is at the very close vicinity to the Orange River catchment (primary stream) dominant mostly to the south of the catchment. The Co-Ni anomaly (M3) to the north of the Catchment is similar to the Cu-Ga-Zn-Rb anomaly M2, these anomalies cover the Campbellrand Subgroup at the same area, and therefore this outline the new potential of base metal mineralisation The M4 anomaly overlay the Dwyka Group, Asbestos Hills and the Skalkseput Granite. The M4 anomaly trends to the north-west following the Skalkseput Granite lithology, at the M7 the Co-Ni anomaly covers the Skalkseput Granite and is associated with the known occurring Uranium commodity.

The M5 Co-Ni anomaly is in close vicinity with the known small Copper occurrence. The anomaly is evident in and around the Orange River Catchment. This will require follow up study to confirm the parent source of the anomaly, because of its

**Figure 8.** *The Fuzzy OR overlay multi-element map index of Co and Ni.*

close vicinity with the known Cu occurrence the Co-Ni correlation may possibly indicate the Base (Cu\_Zn) mineralisation. Unlike the M7 anomaly associated with Spioenkop Formation and Ongeluk lava Formation. The M6 anomaly overlay the Ongeluk Lava Formation, and Asbestos Hill.

The elements of the highest mean averages associated with the Brulsand are the Hf, Mo, Nb, Sc, Ta, and U. The Hf, Sc, Mo, Nb, and Ta are transition elements and most of are typically treated as being immobile during metamorphic processes and therefore can be useful in understanding the effects of metamorphism. U strongly correlates with Hf, Ta and Nb, and moderately correlates with Mo. The M8 potential mineralisation (**Figure 9**) consist of isolated cluster of potential mineralisation zones overlying the Asbestos Hills Subgroup, Koegas Group, Kalahari group, Olifantshoek Supergroup. M9 is associated with known metals occurrences; Cu and U, the isolated cluster of anomalies towards the know Prieska Copperton mine. The M9 potential mineralisation zones on the west of Orange River catchment overlies the Draghoender granite/gneiss, Skalkseput granite, Uitdraai Formation and Zeekoebaart Formation. Granitic rocks rich in pyrochlore, euxenite, brannerite, thorite yield soils rich in Nb, Ta, Ti, rare earths, Sc and Zr, are enriched in dark heavy minerals. The radioactive species originally contained in the parent rocks form a major fraction [23]. The Sc, U, Nb, and Ta are indicators of uranium-bearing minerals in granitic, syenitic, magmatitic, pegmatitic and aplitic bodies and complexes. Strauss and Elsenbroek (2006) found in a study on South African alkali and carbonatite complexes that Nb is by far the strongest and most common indicator for these complexes in soils followed by Zr.

**Figure 9.** *The Fuzzy OR overlay of Mo, Nb, Sc,Ta, and U.*

*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

## **3.2 Stream sediment exploration target generation: economic geology synthesis map of Prieska area**

The following geochemical indices are potential target generators for the Prieska area based on the predominant geology in the area coupled with the single element distribution patterns. The Cu\_Zn for VMS Zn\_Cu deposit, Ni\_Co\_Cr ultramafic Ni\_Cr (Cu) deposit and Zr\_Nb\_U\_Th\_Hf\_Ta for the heavy mineral placer deposits. First, new raster files for each index element is created by using of the inverse distance weighted interpolation (IDW). Then the indices were calculated using the fuzzy overlay OR function from ARCGIS, the advantage of using fuzzy OR overlay is generally provides a better result in cases where the indicator elements are not always associated and is better suited for the secondary dispersion where associated elements in the primary environment are likely to be separated.

The anomaly (**Figure 5**) delineates the known Copperton mine in Prieska area, the Copperton ore body occurs in a series of quartz-feldspar rocks quartz-biotite gneisses and quartz- plagioclase–amphibole gneisses as Copperton Volcanic Pile.

The anomaly M12 associated with Koegas Group, Ongeluk lava Formation and Asbestos Hill Subgroup (**Figure 6**) is a preferred potential target for ultramafic Ni\_ Cr (Cu) deposit. The anomaly overlies the banded Iron Formation of the Asbestos Hill Subgroup; the Asbestos Hill Subgroup is Fe-rich. The anomaly M14 is associated with the known Cu occurrence straddles the Campbell Rand Subgroup, and Zeekoebaart Formation is the secondary target. Anomaly M13 is also identified as the secondary potential target for ultramafic Ni\_Cr (Cu) associated with Dwyka Group.

Zr\_Nb\_U\_Th\_Hf\_Ta are high field strength elements associated with the carbonatites deposits and alkaline magmatic complexes, however the carbonatites deposits are unknown to occur around the Prieska geology area. The high field strength elements are primary indicators of the REE deposit. These elements are associated as incompatible ions, within alkaline igneous melts, which by their emplacement is controlled by the failed rift zone or deep-seated suture.

The anomalies of the Zr\_Nb\_U\_Th\_Hf\_Ta (**Figure 7**) may be due to thorium in waste rock or sediment; dust from mining activities in the surrounding, and possible water contamination from spillage or leakage of chemical solutions used to leach and process ore. Asbestiform amphiboles that are present in waste dumps. The correlation of the Cu-Pb-Zn anomaly with alkali elements (Nb, Zr, Th, and U) and REEs suggests there is a possibility that the M26 –M29 anomaly are alkali-granitic genetic origin. The anomaly could therefore indicate the presence of Cu, Pb, Zn and As sulphides associated with alkali elements and REEs, which makes it a very promising target however the map (**Figure 7**) display a batch effect specifically anomaly M26 and 27, and therefore it is not suitable for interpretation.

## **4. Conclusions and recommendations**

Prieska study area generally forms part of the Namaqua Metamorphic Province and the Griqualand-West Basin. The Kalahari Aeolian sand covers the geology on the area around Prieska Cu-Zn mine. The host sequence in the Copperton district is, from the base: Smouspan Gneiss Member, Prieska Copper Mines Member, and Vogelstruisbult Member. The aeolian sand extensively covers the research area. The secondary dispersion patterns of the elements in the stream sediments may also

destroy the primary association of elements. To overcome this difficulty, a Fuzzy OR overlay of indicator applied. Fuzzy OR generally provides a better result in cases where the indicator elements are not always associated and is better suited for the secondary dispersion where associated elements in the primary environment are likely to be separated.

The descriptive statistics (**Table 3**) results shows that the Ag, Co, Ga, Mo, Nb, Pb, Sb, Sn, Sc, Ta, Th, U, and W concentrations exhibited generally low standard deviation and coefficient of variation values, suggesting a homogenous spatial distribution. In contrast As, Ba, Ce, Cr, Cu, Hf, Nd, Ni, Rb, Sr., S, V, Zr and Zn contents showed a heterogeneous spatial distribution, reflected by high coefficient of variation and large standard deviation. The difference between the median and mean values of high coefficient of variation of the As, Ba, Ce, Cr, Cu, Hf, Nd, Ni, Rb, Sr., S, V, Zr and Zn may be attributed to the extremely high values of these trace elements.

The Fuzzy OR maps give a summary of the potential targets for mineralisation within the study area. Anomaly M1 and M2 associated with Spioenkop Formation though the anomaly does not delineate the Spioenkop Formation but Dwyka Group Sediments, Kalahari Group and Campbell Rand Subgroup. These anomaly signatures are characterised by the one or more of these elements Cu, Ga, Zn, Rb, Pb, Mo, and Ba. Barium is a powerful indicator tool of gossan and be used as an indicator for Zn–Pb deposit. The dataset shows a significant relationship between the Ba and Zn. The relationship between these elements therefore delineate M1 and M2 as potential target for VMS deposit.

The anomaly M2 in close vicinity to the Orange River Catchment, a follow-up study is therefore recommended. The Cu and Zn are generally interpreted as pollution related or may be as a result of metal dispersion from the mine waste. The Zn and Cu high concentrations are not distributed across the Prieska area, the Fuzzy OR overlay of these elements are only elevated in the known Copperton mine area and on the M2 potential VMS mineralisation target area. The anomaly M2 associated with Campbell Rand Subgroup may be as a result of metal dispersion or sourced from the parent underlying rocks.

The Pb and S are also elevated on the known Copperton mine, these elements strongly correlates with the Zn. The Pb and S are likely to be associated with the generic anthropogenic source including sewage discharge, agricultural practises and various kinds of industrial activities. M11 is definitely a VMS mineralisation target, the anomaly overlies the Copperton mine. The high Cu, Zn and Pb are derived from the ore minerals related VMS deposits. The Fe elevated concentration are derived from both primary minerals which are not directly related to the VMS or Co\_Ni (Cu) (illustrated in **Figures 4** and **8**) mineralisation within the study area or from ore related minerals of deposits hosted in Banded Iron formation of the Asbestos Hills Subgroup.

The Cr, Ni reflect ultramafic fraction of the stream sediments. The Ni and Cr originate from direct ophiolitic sequences erosion and the recycling of the rocks enriched in ultramafic debris. The M13 and M14 anomaly are traced along the Orange river Catchment, on the Ghaap group which occurs NW to SE of the study area and north of the Orange River Catchment. Ghaap Group consists of shale, sandstone, andesite, and dolomite, and comprised of the magnesium, carbonate-rich Formation such as Vryburg Formation. M13 and M24 potential mineralisation are possibly sourced from ultramafic debris transported from the Ghaap Group by the Orange River Catchment, however this potential target will require follow-up studies for verification. There is a very high Cu-Zn correlation coefficient calculated for samples near the Copperton deposit.

*Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

## **4.1 Recommendations**

Indicator elements in stream sediments sample represents either mineralisation or post- mineralisation processes. The processes that affect the indicator elements distribution patterns, these process includes weathering, erosion of ore bodies and adjacent mineralised rock, contamination of pollutants, regolith, topographic gradient vegetation density and/or climate. In this study integration of mineral exploration methods such as remote sensing, geophysics and petrography are recommended, this follow-up studies will assist in determining the extent of the anomaly.

The airborne geophysics studies must be conducted over the research area. Low level airborne electromagnetic (EM) surveys over the target area (M1-M29) especially the M2 and M3 which delineate the possibility of the base metal mineralisation is recommended. The high density stream sediments sampling on the grid and a depth of at least 50 meters to minimise the effect of Aeolian sand cover must be conducted. Petrography is another important tool, to understand the mineralogy of the study area underlying rocks. The detailed analysis of minerals by optical microscopy in thin section and micro-texture and structure is recommended in order to understand the origin and history of the rock.

Remote sensing will also be advantageous in conducting geological traverses of the study area in which anomalies of one or more of the above mentioned elements occur to establish the significance of the anomalies. Remote sensing imagery will also provide information on rock composition or rock alteration which is associated with the indicative of the presence of mineral deposits. Ore deposits are localised along regional and local fracture patterns, the Landsat and radar images are used to map these fracture pattern. Using multiple tools of exploration such as geology, structures, geochemistry, and drainage pattern are recommended for use in ArcGIS as thematic layers to generate the potential mineralisation targets.

## **Author details**

Nthabiseng Mashale Council for Geoscience, South Africa

\*Address all correspondence to: nthabilda@gmail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

## **References**

[1] Bokana RN. The Lithogeochemical characterization of the Hondekloof nickel mineralisation, Kliprand area, Garies terrane, Namaqualand South Africa. Cape Town, South Africa: University of the Western Cape; 2015

[2] Cornell DH, Hawkesworth CJ, Van Calsteren P, Scott WD. Sm-Nd study of Precambrian crustal development in the Prieska-Copperton region, Cape Province. Transactions Geological Society of South Africa. 1986;**89**:17-28

[3] Bailie R, Gutzmer J. Age and primary architecture of the Copperton Zn-Cu VMS deposit, Northern Cape Province. South Africa Ore Geology Reviews. 2011; **39**:164-179

[4] Cornell DH, Thomas RJ, Moen HFG, Reid DL, Moore JM, Gibson RL. The Namaqua-Natal Province. In: Johnson MR, Anhaeusser CR, Thomas RJ, editors. The Geology of South Africa. Geological Society of South Africa, Johannesburg/ Council for Geosciences, Pretoria. South African Journal of Geology; 2006. pp. 325-379

[5] Fransson M. Pb-U zircon dating of metasedimentary rocks in the Areachap, Kakamas and Bushmanland Terranes in Namaqua Province, South Africa (thesis). Göteborgs; 2008

[6] Sithole N. A study into the main structural features of the Namaqua region and their relation to the intrusion of the Keimoes Suite. Cape Town, South Africa: University of the Western Cape; 2013

[7] Ginsburg II. Principles of Geochemical Prospecting. Vol. 311. New York: Pergamon Press; 1960

[8] Bradshaw JD, Weaver SD, Laird MG. Suspect terranes and Cambrian tectonics in northern Victoria Land, Antarctica. In: Howell DG, editor. Tectonostratigraphic Terranes of the Circum-Pacific Region, Earth Sci. Ser., vol. 1. Houston, Tex: Circum-Pac. Counc. for Energy and Miner. Resour; 1972. pp. 467-479

[9] Fletcher WK, Lahiri R, Caughlin BL, Blok H. Use of a sensitive analytical method and the silt-clay fraction of stream sediments in exploration for gold in northern Thailand. Journal of Geochemical Exploration. 1995;**55**:301-307

[10] Meyer WT, Theobald PK Jr, Bloom H. Stream Sediment Geochemistry; Geophysics and Geochemistry in the Search for Metallic Ores. In: Hood PJ, editor. Geological Survey of Canada, Economic Geology Report. Vol. 31. 1979. pp. 411-434

[11] Topping NJ. Regional geochemical drainage reconnaissance in the tribal trust lands; In: Viewing KA, Tripp RB, Curtin GC, Day GW, Karlson RC, editors. 7th Annual Report, Institute Mining Res. Univ. Rhodesia; 1976. pp. 49-51

[12] Mayfield I. Regional geochemical drainage reconnaissancenear west Nicholson. In: Viewing KA, editor. 7thAnnual Report. Rhodesia: Institute Mining Resources University; 1976. pp. 51-53

[13] Buhlmann L, Philpott DE, Scott MJ, Sanders RN. The status of exploration geochemistry in southern Africa, in Geochemical Exploration 1974. Amsterdam: Elsevier Pubi. Co.; 1975. pp. 51-64

[14] Smee BW, Ballantyne SB. Examination of some Cordilleran uranium occurrences. In: Report of *Prospectivity Mapping Using Stream Sediment Geochemistry along the Orange River Catchment… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101785*

Activities, Part C, Geological Survey Canada, Paper. 76-1C. 1976. pp. 255-258

[15] Rose AW, Keith ML. Reconnaissance geochemical techniques for detecting uranium deposits in sandstones of northeastern Pennsylvania. Journal of Geochemical Exploration. 1976;**6**:119-138

[16] Moon CJ. Exporation Geochemistry. In: Moon CJ, Whitleyand MKG, Evans AE, editors. Introduction to Mineral Exploration. Second ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publisher; 2006. p. 499

[17] Carranza EJM. A Catchment Basin Approach to the Analysis of Reconnaissance Geochemica-Geological Data from Albay province, Phillipines (thesis). Delft, ITC; 1994. p. 206

[18] Reimann C, Filzmoser P, Garret RG. Background and threshold: Critical comparison of methods of determination. Science of the Total Environment. 2005;**346**:1-16

[19] Garret RG. The role of computers in exploration geochemistry. In: Garland GD, editor. Proceedings of Exploration 87, Ontario Geological Survey. Vol. 3. Toronto; 1989. pp. 586-608

[20] Howarth RJ. Statistical Applications in geochemical prospecting: A survey of recent developments. Journal of Geochemical Exploration. 1984;**21**:41-61

[21] Eriksson PG, Altermann W, Catuneanu O, der Merwe V, Bumby AJ. Major influences on the evolution of the Kaapvaal craton. Sedimentary Geology. 2001;**141-142**:205-231

[22] An P, Moon WM, Rencz AN. Application of fuzzy theory for integration of geological, geophysical and remotely sensed data. Canadian Journal of Exploration Geophysics. 1991; **27**:1-11

[23] Boyle RW. Geochemical prospecting for thorium and uranium deposits. Developments in Economic Geology. 1982;**16**:42

## **Chapter 6**

## Proterozoic Newer Dolerite Dyke Swarm Magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton, Eastern India

*Akhtar R. Mir*

## **Abstract**

Precambrian mafic magmatism and its role in the evolution of Earth's crust has been paid serious attention by researchers for the last four decades. The emplacement of mafic dyke swarms acts as an important time marker in geological terrains. Number of shield terrains throughout the world has been intruded by the Precambrian dyke swarms, hence the presence of these dykes are useful to understand the Proterozoic tectonics, magmatism, crustal growth and continental reconstruction. Likewise, the Protocontinents of Indian Shield e.g. Aravalli-Bundelkhand, Dharwar, Bastar, and Singhbhum Protocontinent had experienced the dyke swarm intrusions having different characteristics and orientations. In Singhbhum craton, an impressive set of mafic dyke swarm, called as Newer dolerite dyke swarm, had intruded the Precambrian Singhbhum granitoid complex through a wide geological period from 2800 to 1100 Ma. Present chapter focuses on the published results or conclusions of these dykes in terms of their mantle source characteristics, metasomatism of the mantle source, degree of crustal contamination and partial melting processes. Geochemical characteristics of these dykes particularly Ti/Y, Zr/Y, Th/Nb, Ba/Nb, La/Nb, (La/Sm)PM are similar to either MORB or subduction zone basalts that occur along the plate margin. The enriched LREE-LILE and depletion of HFSE especially Nb, P and Ti probably indicate generation of these dykes in a subduction zone setting.

**Keywords:** geochemistry, newer dolerite dykes, Singhbhum craton, India

## **1. Introduction**

Precambrian mafic magmatism and its role in the evolution of Earth's crust has received particular attention of the geoscientists during the last three decades because it has not only been influenced by progressive secular compositional variation and mantle sources/reservoirs but also by onset of plate tectonics. Study of dykes is useful for recognition of Large Igneous Provinces (LIP) and rebuilding of different continents which may have displaced through geological time [1]. All protocontinents of India such as Aravalli-Bundelkhand, Dharwar, Bastar and Singhbhum retain dykes of varied orientations, therefore, these dykes or dyke swarms represent a main thermal episode during the Proterozoic or Precambrain times [2]. Geochemical and isotope studies of these dykes offer an opportunity in understanding the geochemical evolution of mantle through space and time [3, 4].

Singhbhum Craton is a book that records complex geological and tectonic processes from Paleoarchean to Neoproterozoic [5, 6]. Several dykes of mafic to acidic compositions are intruding the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex, which are collectively referred to as the Newer dolerites dykes (NDD) in the geological literature [7, 8]. Being the latest magmatic episode of the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex, Newer dolerite dykes provide the path in understanding the Proterozoic geodynamic evolution of the Singhbhum Craton [9]. The present work contributes in understanding the mantle source characteristics and tectonic setting of the NDD.

## **2. General geology**

Mahanadi Graben and Sukinda thrust borders the Eastern Indian shield in the west and granulite terrain of Eastern Ghats along with recent alluvium surrounds this shield in the south, whereas, Gangetic alluvium and Quaternary sediments of Bengal basin exist in north and east of this shield (**Figure 1**). The major divisions of this shield includes: Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss Complex, Singhbhum Mobile Belt and Singhbhum Craton. The general geological features of each of the above geological provinces are briefly discussed in the following sections.

## **2.1 Chotanagpur granite gneiss complex**

Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss Complex (CGCC) exists in West Bengal and Jharkhand states of India and covers an area of about 80,000 km2 (Latitudes 23°00′N to 25°00′N; Longitudes 83°45′E to 87°45′E). It is mostly made of granites, granite-gneisses, migmatites, dolerite dykes and pegmatite, aplite and quartz veins From the structural patterns, worked out in different parts of the CGGC, it is clear that the region has undergone polyphase deformation producing distinctive folds and related linear fabrics [8].

## **2.2 Singhbhum mobile belt**

The formations occurring in between the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex (SGC) and CGGC are collectively recognized either as the Singhbhum Mobile Belt (SMB) or Singhbhum Group. The SMB (**Figure 2**), has been divided into five litho-stratigraphic domains from north to south [11, 12] like (a) volcano-sedimentary belt, (b) Dalma metavolcanic belt, (c) Chaibasa and Dhalbhum Formations, (d) the rocks occurring in the SSZ and (e) Dhanjori and/or the Ongarbira metavolcanic rocks.

## **2.3 Singhbhum craton**

The Singhbhum Craton (SC) records a long history of crustal evolution from Mesoarchaean to Mesoproterozoic. It is an extensive terrain of granite and gneissic complex with subordinate metabasic and minor metasedimentary rocks (**Figure 2**). Some important geological units are briefed below:

## *2.3.1 Older metamorphic group*

**126** Older Metamorphic Group (OMG) occurs near Champua (Latitudes 22°04′N: Longitudes 85°40′E) and as enclaves in the SGC. This group had experienced amphibolite facies metamorphism and is made of pelitic schists, garnetiferous quartzite, calc-magnesian metasediments and sill like mafic rocks [5]. Goswami

*Proterozoic Newer Dolerite Dyke Swarm Magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton, Eastern India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104833*

**Figure 1.**

*Simplified geological map of eastern Indian shield illustrating the three geological provinces viz. Chotanagpur granite gneiss complex (CGGC), Singhbhum Mobile Belt (SMB) and Singhbhum craton (SC). SSZ – Singhbhum shear zone [9].*

et al. [13] and Mishra [14], have dated detrital zircons and recognized an older limit of 3.5Ga age for these supra-crustals. On the bases of Pb/Pb whole rock dating, Moorbath and Taylor [15] has established 3378 ± 98 Ma age for these supra-crustals. This age matches with Sm/Nd (TDM model) ages of 3.41, 3.39 and 3.35 Ga [15]. Sharma et al. [16], however, pointed out that protoliths of OMG amphibolites are 3305 ± 60 Ma old and therefore OMTG which intrude OMG cannot be older than 3300 Ma. The younger 3.40, 3.35 and 3.20 Ga ages have been interpreted as metamorphic events [17, 18].

**Figure 2.**

*Simplified geological map of the Singhbhum craton [10].*

## *2.3.2 Singhbhum granitoid complex*

It has been suggested that SGC (Latitudes 21°00′ and 22°45′ N: Longitudes 85°30′ and 86°30′E) is composed of 12 distinct units that were emplaced in three successive magmatic phases [5]. The K-poor, granodiorite trondhjemite early (phase I) has been dated as 3.25 ± 0.05 Ga [19]. The II and III phases are made of granodiorite that grade to monzogranite and granite and these phases are dated as 3.06 Ga (Pb/Pb whole rock) and 2.9 Ga (Rb/Sr. whole rock) respectively [5]. The other granitic bodies that occur in

## *Proterozoic Newer Dolerite Dyke Swarm Magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton, Eastern India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104833*

SC show ages similar to that of SGC, for example, Bonai granites (3369 ± 57 Ma) [20] and Katipada tonalite (3275 ± 81 Ma) [21]. Recent U–Pb zircon studies have revealed that rocks of the SG batholith were emplaced between ~3.45 Ga and ~ 3.32 Ga [22].

#### *2.3.3 Banded iron formations*

BIF is considered to have been deposited in three interconnected basins [5]. These basins are: (i) Noamundi (Latitudes 22°09′N: Longitudes 85°31′E) – Koira (Latitudes 21°54′N: Longitudes 85°15′E) basin of west Singhbhum district and Keonjhar, (ii) Gorumahisani (Latitudes 22°18′30′N: Longitudes 86°17′E) – Badampahar (Latitudes 22°04′N: Longitudes 86°07′E) basin along the eastern border of the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex and (iii) Daitari-Tomka basin in the southern parts of the Singhbhum Craton. In the Noamundi– Koira BIF, rocks are made up of shale, phyllite, the middle formation of banded hematite jasper and an upper formation of magniferous shale, chert, manganese formation and shale. A granite body intruding BIF near Sulaipat has been dated as 3.12 ± 0.01 Ga [23]. Some mafic and ultramafic rocks referred to as Gorumahisani Greenstones are associated with this Gorumahisani-Badampahar BIF sequence [24].

### *2.3.4 Bonai volcanic suite*

Bonai volcanics show sub-aerial and sub-marine features in the west and east parts of its extension respectively [24, 25]. These volcanics are made of mafic rocks, tuffs and subordinate silica volcanic clastic interbeds. It has been inferred that these volcanics show island arc basalt characteristics [24].

### *2.3.5 Jagannathpur volcanic suite*

These volcanics are exposed around Noamundi upto Jagannathpur and are younger than BIF of Noamundi-Koira belt [24]. Significantly, NDD are not cutting across the Jagannathpur Suite. It, therefore, appears that it is either equivalent in age or younger than the NDD. Alvi and Raza [26] found these to be calc-alkaline basalts and suggested that these lava flows represent an early arc volcanism. The Jagannathpur lavas have been dated around 1629 ± 30 Ma by K/Ar method [5] and 2250 ± 81 Ma by Pb/Pb whole rock isochron method [27].

## *2.3.6 Gorumahisani volcanic suite*

It is associated with Gorumahisani-Badampahar BIF along the eastern border of SBGC. The rocks of this volcanic suite are intruded by Kumhardubi (Latitude 22° 17′N: Longitude 86°19′30″) - Dublarbera (Latitude 22°29′30″ N: Longitude 86°17′E) gabbroanorthosite, Rangamatia (Latitude 22°29′15″N: Longitude 86°17′30″E) Leucotonalite, Katupith (Latitude 22°18′N: Longitude 86°17′30′′E) Leucogranite and NDD swarm.

## *2.3.7 Simlipal complex*

Recently Kar et al. [28] suggested that the circular shape of Simlipal complex is only a topography controlled rather than an existence of alternate bands of mafic volcanic and quartzites. Further, they suggested that the Simlipal complex overlies the weakly metamorphosed basement heterolith unit (Lulung Formation) which is overlain by Barehipani Formation and Jurunda Formation. Paleoproterozoic age for this complex has been given by Saha [5]. Further, Iyengar et al. [29] suggested 2084 ± 70 Ma age for Similipal complex by following the Rb-Sr whole rock method.

## *2.3.8 Kolhan group*

This group exists on the western margin of the SBC and its length is around 100 km with a width of about 12 km. Saha [5] correlated Chaniakpur-Keonjhargarh, Mankarchua and Sarpalli-Kamakhyanagar formations with Kolhan Group. The Singhbhum granite Basement, Dongoaposi (Jagannathpur) lavas and the Iron Group surround Kolhan basin on the NE, S-SE and west respectively [30]. The Kolhan shales north of Hat Gamaria are intruded by three parallel sills of the NDD. South west of Jagannathpur, flat lying Kolhan shales overlie the Jagannathpur lava.

## **3. Petrography**

NDD have experienced low grade regional metamorphism in the vicinity of Singhbhum Shear Zone, however they are fresh to least effected in the western and central parts of the Singhbhum Granitiod Complex. NNE–SSW trending ultramaficmafic dyke exposed near Keshargaria is medium to coarse grained rock with green to dark green color. The ultramafic dykes which consist of olivine (25–52%) and pyroxenes (45–65%) are present. Mafic dykes are mainly massive, sometimes coarse grained and their color varies from black to greenish gray. The essential constituents of dolerite type of dykes includes pyroxenes, plagioclases and quartz with little amphiboles. Clinopyroxene is mainly augite in the form of euhedral to subhedral prismatic phenocrysts and also as granular aggregates in the groundmass. Rarely, clinopyroxene shows alteration to pale-green amphibole and/or biotite around the grain boundaries. Quartz (0.5 to 3%) is present as subhedral to anhedral crystals. Accessory minerals are opaques, apatite, and rutile. Opaque minerals (0.5 to 5%) include magnetite and Cr-Spinel. Norite samples consist dominantly orthopyroxene (hypersthene) and plagioclase (labradorite) together with subordinate diopsidic augite and small amounts of quartz. In Quartz dolerites relatively greater proportion of anhedral quartz is noticed. The major constituents in quartz dolerite are calcic plagioclase, clinopyroxene (diopside-augite) and subordinate amount of orthopyroxene (hypersthene, enstatite). Coarse grained gabbroic variety of the NDD is mostly coarse grained dark colored. Under microscope, they show overall hypidiomorphic texture with local development of subophitic texture. They show subhedral laths of labradorite plagioclase and augite. Orthopyroxene is rarely found within this petrographic variant.

## **4. Geochemistry**

While observing geochemical characteristics, NDD have been classified as (i) ultramafic dykes {having MgO >30.0 wt. %, SiO2 < 45.0 wt. %, Al2O3 < 5.0 wt. % and alkalies <1.0 wt. %; (ii) Group I dykes {having MgO 12–22 wt. %, SiO2 45–53 wt. %, Al2O3 < 11.0% and total alkalies <3.0%; (iii) Group II dykes {having MgO 7.0–19.0 wt.%, SiO2 51–60 wt. %, Al2O3 10–12 wt. % and alkalies 1.0–3.50 wt. %; (iv) Group III {having MgO 6.0–12 wt. %, SiO2 51.0–70.0 wt. %, Al2O3 10.0–12.5 wt. % and total alkalies 2.0–4.5 wt. %. Group I dykes contain lower MgO and MnO and higher SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, P2O5 and alkalies as compared to Ultramafic dykes. Group II contains high TiO2, Fe2O3, MgO and P2O5 contents and lower SiO2 and Alkalies relative to group III dykes. In Total Alkali-Silica relationships the NDD show chemical variation from

*Proterozoic Newer Dolerite Dyke Swarm Magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton, Eastern India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104833*

ultramafic to dacite through basalt and basaltic andesite (Figure not shown). Some samples show chemical features like MgO > 8%, SiO2 > 52%, TiO2 ≤ 0.5% and CaO/ Al2O3 < 1 similar to that found in boninitic rocks [31–34].

In under investigated samples Mg# (Mg # = molar 100 Mg/Mg + Fetotal) show variation like 89–85, 79–64, 80–43 and 74–49 in ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III dykes respectively. Such a change in Mg# is consistent with the fractional crystallization of ferromagnesian minerals [35]. The presence of normative quartz content in studied dolerite samples (excluding ultramafic samples) having Mg# >70 may indicate their derivation from multiple parental magmas. Mir and Alvi, [36] have suggested more investigation in terms of isotope geochemistry and radiometric data of ultramafic dykes from Keshergarya village, Singhbhum craton. They suspect their relationship with the mafic members of the NDD. Tholeiite and calc-alkaline trends are commonly based on AFM ternary plot (A = Na2O + K2O, FeO\* = total iron as FeO, and M = MgO) [37]. In AFM diagram the NDD show tholeiitic trend. Ultramafic dykes concentrate towards MgO corner of AFM diagram (**Figure 3**).

During the partial melting or fractional crystallization the transitional elements like Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co) are compatible with olivine whereas Scandium (Sc), Chromium (Cr) and Vanadium (V) are compatible with clinopyroxene [39], hence these elements are important in petrogenetic studies of basic rocks. These elements are useful to demarcate the primary nature of magma as it has been noted that primary mid ocean ridge basalt (MORB) magmas retain high concentration of Ni (> 250–400 ppm), Cr (> 600 ppm) and Mg # > 70 [35]. Mg#, Ni & Cr varies like {(85–89, 150–304 & 560–2458), (64–79, 45–145 & 255–733), (43–80, 9–73 & 31–524), (49–74, 17–43 & 42–226)} respectively in concern ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III mafic dykes. Such geochemical observations infer that the samples with low Mg #, Cr and Ni values may have evolved through fractional crystallization of olivine and pyroxene [35]. Further, it has been suggested that some dyke samples having similar Mg# with distinct Ni and Cr contents and some samples having distinct Mg# with similar Ni and Cr contents indicates that either the diverse extents of partial melting of the same source or heterogeneous mantle sources are responsible for the generation of different phases of

#### **Figure 3.**

*K2O + Na2O-Fe2O3 t -MgO (AFM) diagram showing theoleiitic trend of NDD. Field lines are after Kuno [37] and Irvine and Baragar [38].*

the Newer dolerite dykes. Ti/V values ranging from 20 to 50 indicates the low oxygen fugacity (*ƒ*O2) i.e. reduced condition of magma generation like MORB setting whereas Ti/V values ranging from 10 to 20 are markers of high *ƒ*O2 i.e. oxidizing condition of magma generation like subduction zones or supra-subduction zones settings [40]. In concern Newer dolerite dykes, Ti/V values range from 14 to 30, 9–29, 10–34 and 14–32 in ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III dykes respectively which indicates generation of melts for these dykes had occurred under varied oxidizing conditions.

Mafic intrusions in subduction environments are important for deciphering interaction between subduction slabs and mantle. Such interactions usually result in the mantle wedge being enriched in LILE by introduction of fluids and /melts from the converging lithosphere [41]. Both fluids and melts can be introduced at different depths above a

#### **Figure 4.**

*Primitive mantle normalized multi-element spider diagram of NDD. Normalized values are after Sun and McDonald [43]. CLM- continental lithospheric mantle; E-MORB-enriched mid ocean ridge basalts; N-MORB-Normal mid ocean ridge basalts; OIB-Ocean island basalts.*

*Proterozoic Newer Dolerite Dyke Swarm Magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton, Eastern India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104833*

subduction zone [41]. Thus, mafic rocks across subduction zone environments may record variable degrees of mantle source modification by slab derived components [41].

The studied NDD have low K/Rb ratios up to 320 perhaps suggesting the source region of the Newer Dolerites experienced fluid modification [41, 42]. The ratios of elements such as Barium (Ba), Thorium (Th), Zirconium (Zr) and Niobium (Nb) are useful to know about the subduction zone related metasomatism of mantle, hence the values of Ba/Th, Ba/Zr & Ba/Nb in ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III dykes range like {(59–197, 3–6 & 38–119), (35–365; 1–5 & 18–195), (34–231, 1–6 & 10–76) and (37–228, 2–14 & 20–106)} respectively. Such values are higher than that of the average values of the continental crust which in turn points towards the subduction zone related metasomatism of mantle source of these rocks [42]. Two alternative processes could explain the negative Nb anomaly (**Figure 4**) observed in the NDD: (i) metasomatic enrichment of lithospheric mantle [44] and (ii) chemical interaction between lithospheric mantle and asthenosphere-derived magma having incompatible elements but little Nb [45]. However, high La/Nb and La/Ta of Newer dolerite dykes supports the metasomatic enrichment of lithospheric mantle as a reason for Nb anomalies. Hence, the negative anomalies of Nb and Ti on primitive mantle normalized patterns (**Figure 4**) [42], abundance of light rare earth elements (LREE) (Figure not shown), nearly flat sub-parallel pattern of heavy rare earth elements (HREE) (Figure not shown), chondrite normalized ratio of Lanthanum to Ytterbium (La/YbN < 12.0) and chondrite normalized ratio of Lanthanum to Samarium (La/SmN < 4.0) of concern NDD supports their affiliation with arc or subduction zone setting [46].

## **5. Petrogenesis**

The petrogenesis of mantle derived magmatic rocks can commonly be traced by their geochemical and isotopic data. The mafic magmatic activity in the form of dykes at intervals throughout the Proterozoic provides a useful window to monitor mantle evolution [47, 48].

From the mentioned geochemical characteristics, it may be inferred that the NDD having Mg# <60 are evolved members that have been formed through fractional crystallization of Mg-rich minerals like olivine and/or pyroxene [49]. On TiO2 vs. Al2O3/TiO2 (**Figure 5a**) and CaO/TiO2 diagrams (**Figure 5b**) NDD plot in MORB, low TiO2 boninite & high-Mg andesite fields which suggests the compatibility of Ti and retention of Al and Ca in residual phases like pyroxenes, garnet, plagioclase and spinel [50]. Further, these relationships indicate that low TiO2 samples were derived from relatively more hydrously fractionated magmas and high TiO2 samples were derived from least hydrously fractionated magmas [51].

Fractional crystallization associated with crustal contamination (AFC) is an important process during magma evolution that may modify both elemental and isotopic compositions [52]. As we know that the concentration of Rubidium (Rb), Barium (Ba), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na) etc. is rich in crustal materials whereas P2O5 and TiO2 is poor in these materials. Hence, any crustal contamination of mafic magma changes the primary geochemistry of magma accordingly [41]. However, in concern samples the low content and range of K2O and NaO2 are indications of least crustal contamination in these rocks. In addition to this, the ratio of Cerium to Lead (Ce/Pb) and Niobium to Uranium (Nb/U) are not changed due to partial melting, hence, these ratios can be applied to know about the effects of alteration or crustal

#### **Figure 5.**

*(a) TiO2 vs. Al2O3/TiO2 and (b) TiO2 vs. CaO/TiO2 binary diagrams for NDD. HMA-high Mg Andesites and MORB-Mid Ocean ridge basalts.*

contamination of mafic rocks. In concern samples these ratios are higher than that of upper continental crust (Ce/Pb = 3.2) and (Nb/U = 9) [53]. Therefore, it is suggested that the investigated NDD have least or no contamination of crustal materials.

Trace element ratios, such as La/Yb, Th/Yb, Ba/La and La/Nb are widely used to identify the metasomatic agents and estimate the flux from the subducted slab [54]. All these ratios in case of NDD imply varying inputs of sediment and fluid components from the subducting slab in their formation.

The high (La/Yb)N and (Gd/Yb)N in combination with relatively low HREE abundance of the NDD suggest that they may have formed by low degrees of partial melting of a garnet bearing source. Asthenospheric or deep or plume and lithospheric or shallow or non-plume derived mafic melts or basalts can be differentiated or evaluated by geochemical ratios like Lanthanum (La) /Tantalum (Ta) and La/Nb. Thompson and Morrison [55] suggested that values of La/Ta =10–12 and La/Ta >30 indicates that basaltic rocks may have been derived from asthenospheric mantle and lithospheric

*Proterozoic Newer Dolerite Dyke Swarm Magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton, Eastern India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104833*

mantle respectively. Further, Wang et al. [56] used La/Nb ratio to discriminate asthenospheric mantle and lithospheric mantle sources. They suggested La/Nb <1.5 for asthenospheric mantle derived mafic rocks and La/Nb >1.5 for lithospheric mantle derived mafic rocks. In majority of NDD it has been seen that La/Ta is greater than 30 and La/Nb is greater than 1.5 that reveals their derivation may be from lithospheric mantle source. Moreover, on primitive mantle-normalized multi-element diagram (**Figure 4**), NDD show patterns differed from that of normal mid ocean ridge basalts, enriched mid ocean ridge basalts, ocean island basalts and continental lithospheric mantle and show depletion of Ba, Nb, Sr., P, Ti and richness of Zr. Such geochemical characteristics are similar to that found in arc or back-arc extension basalts [57, 58].

## **6. Tectonic setting**

Keeping in view the importance of dykes or dyke swarms in identification of large igneous provinces, reconstruction of continents, continental rifting and continentalcontinental collision events [59], the geochemical studies on NDD may have potential in understanding the geodynamic evolution of Singhbhum craton in Precambrian times. The association of mafic dykes with the initiation of sedimentary basins and their geochemistry retaining long term memories of subduction processes in the lithosphere mantle are too well known [60]. Origin of NDD has been either related to arc/back-arc tectonic setting i.e. non-plume source [42, 61–66] or plume source [5, 67]. In addition, Boss [68] suggested both depleted and enriched mantle source for Newer dolerite dykes. However, mantle plume model faces some issues in evaluation of origin of the NDD due to following reasons (i) age of NDD varying from 2800 to 1000 Ma [5, 69, 70] suggests that it is hard to tap a uniform magma source for such a long time interval, (ii) absence of large scale mafic lavas in Singhbhum craton having intraplate setting/geochemistry and (iii) further, the occurrence of voluminous hydrous lithospheric mantle across the cratons developed during the Archaean (~3 Ga) and its role in the Proterozoic magmas [48].

## **7. Conclusions**

Reported age of newer dolerite dykes vary from 900 Ma to 2800 Ma and traverse a number of rock types in some regular sets like NNE–SSW and NW-SE trends. Variations in major elements, particularly SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, TiO2 contents, and CaO/ TiO2 and Al2O3/TiO2 ratios in these dykes indicates that their Ca and Al are held in the residual mantle phases such as clinopyroxene, plagioclase, spinal and garnet. The overall low Mg #, Cr and Ni values in studied NDD indicate their evolution through fractional crystallization of olivine and pyroxene. A few dyke samples having similar Mg# with distinct Ni and Cr contents and some samples having distinct Mg# with similar Ni and Cr contents indicates that either the diverse extents of partial melting of the same source or heterogeneous mantle sources are responsible for the generation of different phases of the Newer dolerite dykes. In studied NDD low content and narrow range of K2O and NaO2 in addition to higher values of Ce/Pb and Nb/U than that of upper continental crust are indications of least crustal contamination in these rocks.

Values of Ba/Th, Ba/Zr & Ba/Nb in NDD are higher than that of the average values of the continental crust which in turn points towards the subduction zone related

metasomatism of mantle source of these rocks. Further, the enriched LREE and flat sub-parallel pattern of HREE along with La/YbN <12.0 and La/SmN <4.0 of concern NDD supports their affiliation with arc or subduction zone setting. Moreover, their primitive mantle-normalized multi-element patterns differed from that of normal mid ocean ridge basalts, enriched mid ocean ridge basalts, ocean island basalts and continental lithospheric mantle and show depletion of Ba, Nb, Sr., P, Ti and richness of Zr. Such geochemical characteristics are similar to that found in arc or back-arc extension basalts.

## **Acknowledgements**

Author is sincerely thankful to the Director, Leh Campus Taru, University of Ladakh for providing facilities in preparation of this book chapter. Author pays thanks to Dr. Malik Zubair A. and Dr. Farooq A. Dar for their valuable suggestions during write up of this book chapter. Constructive comments and valuable suggestions from anonymous reviewers are duly acknowledged.

## **Author details**

Akhtar R. Mir1,2

1 Department of Geology, Leh Campus Taru, University of Ladakh, UT-Ladakh, India

2 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Kashmir, JK-UT, India

\*Address all correspondence to: mirakhtar.r@gmail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Proterozoic Newer Dolerite Dyke Swarm Magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton, Eastern India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104833*

## **References**

[1] Bryan SE, Ernst RE. Revised definition of large igneous provinces (LIPs). Earth Science Review. 2008;**86**:175-202

[2] Srivastava RK, Sivaji C, Chalapathi Rao NV. Geochemistry, geophysics and geochronology. In: Srivastava RK, Ch S, Chalapathi Rao NV, editors. Indian Dykes. New Delhi: Narosa Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.; 2008. p. 626

[3] Tarney J. Geochemistry and significance of mafic dyke swarms in the Proterozoic. In: Condie KC, editor. Proterozoic Crustal Evolution. Elsevier: Amsterdam; 1992. pp. 151-179

[4] Hall RP, Hughes DJ. Early Precambrian crustal development: Changing styles of mafic magmatism. Journal of the Geological Society of London. 1993;**150**:625-635

[5] Saha AK. Crustal evolution of Singhbhum-North Orissa, Eastern India. Memoir, Geological Society of India. 1994;**27**:341

[6] Majumdar R, Bose PK, Sarkar S. A commentary on the tectono-sedimentary record of the pre-2.0 Ga continental growth of India Vis-à-Vis a possible pre-Gondwana afro-Indian supercontinent. Journal of African Earth Sciences. 2000;**30**:201-217

[7] Dunn JA. The stratigraphy of south Singhbhum. Memoir, Geological Survey of India. 1940;**63**(3):303-369

[8] Mahadevan TM. Geology of Bihar and Jharkhand. Text Book Series. Bangalore: Geological Society of India; 2002. p. 563

[9] Sarkar AN. Precambrian tectonic evolution of eastern India: A model of converging microplates. Tectonophysics. 1982;**86**:363-397

[10] Iyengar SVP, Murthy YGK. The evolution of the Archaean-Proterozoic crust in parts of Bihar and Orissa, eastern India. Records, Geological Survey of India. 1982;**112**:1-5

[11] Sarkar SC, Gupta A, Basu A. North Singhbhum Proterozoic mobile belt, eastern India: Its character, evolution and metallogeny. In: Sarkar SC, editor. Metallogeny Related to Tectonics of the Proterozoic Mobile Belts. Calcutta: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.; 1992. pp. 271-305

[12] Gupta A, Basu A. North Singhbhum Proterozoic mobile belt eastern India-a review. Special Publication, Geological Survey of India. 2000;**55**:195-226

[13] Goswami JN, Mishra S, Wiedenbeck M, Ray SL, Saha AK. 3.55 Ga old zircon from Singhbhum-Orissa iron ore craton, eastern India. Current Science. 1995;**69**:1008-1011

[14] Misra S. Precambrian chronostratigraphic growth of Singhbhum-Orissa craton, eastern Indian shield: An alternative model. Journal of the Geological Society of India. 2006;**67**:356-378

[15] Moorbath S, Taylor PN. Early Precambrian crustal evolution in eastern India: The ages of the Singhbhum granite and included remnants of older gneiss. Journal of the Geological Society of India. 1988;**31**:82-84

[16] Sharma M, Basu AR, Ray SL. Sm-Nd isotopic and geochemical study of the Archaean tonalite-amphibolite association from the eastern Indian craton. Contribution to Mineralogy & Petrology. 1994;**117**:45-55

[17] Mishra S, Deomurari MP, Wiedenbeck M, Goswami JN, Ray S, Saha AK. 207Pb/206Pb zircon ages and the evolution of the Singhbhum craton, eastern India: Anion microprobe study. Precambrian Research. 1999;**93**:139-151

[18] Upadhyay D, Chattopadhyay S, Kooijman E, Mezger K, Berndt J. Magmatic and metamorphic history of Paleoarchean Tonalite-Trondhjemitegranodiorite (TTG) suite from the Singhbhum craton, eastern India. Precambrian Research. 2014;**252**:180-190

[19] Moorbath S, Taylor PN, Jones NW. Dating the oldest terrestrial rocks – Facts and fiction. Chemical Geology. 1986;**57**:63-86

[20] Sengupta S, Paul DK, De Laeter JR, McNaughton NJ, Bandyopadhyay PK, De Smeth JB. Mid-Archaean evolution of the eastern Indian craton: Geochemical and isotopic evidence from the Bonai pluton. Precambrian Research. 1991;**49**:23-37

[21] Vohra CP, Dasgupta S, Paul DK, Bishoi PK, Gupta SN, Guha S. Rb-Sr chronology and petrochemistry of granitoids from the southeastern part of the Singhbhum craton, Orissa. Journal of the Geological Society of India. 1991;**38**:5-22

[22] Dey S, Topno S, Liu Y, Zong K. Generation and evolution of Palaeoarchaean continental crust in the central part of the Singhbhum craton, eastern India. Precambrian Research. 2017;**298**:268-291

[23] Chakraborty KL, Majumder T. Geological aspects of the banded Iron formation of Bihar and Orissa. Journal of the Geological Society of India. 1986;**31**:305-313

[24] Banerjee PK. Stratigraphy, petrology and geochemistry of some Precambrian

basic volcanic and associated rocks of Singhbhum district, Bihar and Mayurbhanj and Koenjhar districts, Orissa. Memoir, Geological Survey of India. 1982;**111**:58

[25] Bose MK. Precambrian picritic pillow lavas from Nomira, Koenjhar, Eastern India. Current Science. 1982;**51**:677-684

[26] Alvi SH, Raza M. Nature and magma type of Jagannathpur volcanics, Singhbhum, eastern India. Journal of the Geological Society of India. 1991;**38**:524-531

[27] Misra S, Johnson PT. Geochronological constraints on evolution of the Singhbhum Mobile belt and associated basic volcanics of eastern Indian shield. Gondwana Research. 2005;**8**:129-142

[28] Kar A, Ray J, Sinha S, Kar R, Manikyamba C, Paul M, et al. Geology of the Simlipal Volcano-Sedimentary Basin of Singhbhum revisited: A simplistic interpretation. Journal of the Geological Society of India. 2022;**98**:329-334

[29] Iyengar SVP, Chandy KC, Narayanaswamy R. Geochronology and Rb-Sr systematics of the igneous rocks of the Simlipal complex, Orissa. Indian Journal of Earth Science. 1981;**8**:61-65

[30] Mukhopadhyay J, Ghosh G, Nandi AK, Chaudhuri AK. Depositional setting of the Kolhan group: Its implications for the development of a Meso to Neoproterozoic deep-water basin on the south Indian craton. South African Journal of Geology. 2006;**109**:183-192

[31] Srivastava RK. Geochemistry and petrogenesis of Neoarchaean high-Mg low-Ti mafic igneous rocks in an intracratonic setting, Central India craton: Evidence for boninite

*Proterozoic Newer Dolerite Dyke Swarm Magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton, Eastern India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104833*

magmatism. Geochemical Journal. 2006;**40**:15-31

[32] Srivastava RK. Global Intracratonic Boninite-Norite magmatism during the Neoarchean–Paleoproterozoic: Evidence from the central Indian Bastar craton. International Geology Review. 2008;**50**:61-74

[33] Subba Ra DV, Balaram V, Naga Raju K, Sridhar DN. Paleoproterozoic Boninite-like rocks in an Intercratonic setting from northern Bastar craton, Central India. Journal of the Geological Society of India. 2008;**72**:373-380

[34] Mir AR, Alvi SH, Balaram V. Boninitic geochemical characteristics of high-Mg mafic dykes from Singhbhum Granitoid complex, eastern India. Acta Geochimica. 2015;**34**(2):241-251

[35] Wilson M. Igneous Petrogenesis. London: Unwin Hyman Ltd.; 1989. p. 466

[36] Mir AR, Alvi SH. Mafic and ultramafic dykes of Singhbhum craton from Chaibasa, Jharkhand, eastern India: Geochemical constraints for their magma sources. Current Science. 2015;**109**(8):1399-1403

[37] Kuno H. Differentiation of basalt magmas. In: Hess HH, Poldervaart A, editors. The Poldervaart Treatise on Rocks of Basaltic Composition. New York: Interscience; 1968. pp. 623-688

[38] Irvine TN, Baragar WRA. A guide to the chemical classification of the common rocks. Canadian Journal of Earth Science. 1971;**8**:523-548

[39] Rollinson HR. Using geochemical data: evaluation, presentation, interpretation. Essex, U.K.: Longman Scientific Technical; 1993. p. 344

[40] Shervais JW. Ti-V plots and the petrogenesis of modern and ophiolitic lavas. Earth & Planetary Science Letters. 1982;**87**:341-370

[41] Zhao JH, Zhou MF. Geochemistry of Neoproterozoic mafic intrusions in the Panzhihua district (Sichuan Province, SW China): Implications for subduction-related metasomatism in the upper mantle. Precambrian Research. 2007;**152**:27-47

[42] Mir AR, Alvi SH, Balaram V. Geochemistry of mafic dikes in the Singhbhum Orissa craton: Implications for subduction-related metasomatism of the mantle beneath the eastern Indian craton. International Geology Review. 2010;**52**(1):79-94

[43] Sun SS, Mc Donough WF. Chemical and isotopic systematics of oceanic basalts: Implications for mantle composition and processes. In: Saunders AD, Norry MJ, editors. Magmatism in the Ocean Basins. Vol. 42. London, New York, Sydney: Special Publication, Geological Society of London; 1989. pp. 313-345

[44] Kepezhinskas P, McDermott F, Defant M, Hochstaedter A, Drummond MS, Hawdesworth CJ, et al. Trace element and Sr–Nd–Pb isotopic constraints on a three-component model of Kamchatka arc petrogenesis. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 1997;**61**:577-600

[45] Gladkochub DP, Wingate MTD, Pisarevsky SA, Donskaya TV, Mazukabzov AM, Ponomarchuk VA, et al. Mafic intrusions in southwestern Siberia and implications for a Neoproterozoic connection with Laurentia. Precambrian Research. 2006;**147**:260-278

[46] Verma SP. Extension-related origin of magmas from a garnet-bearing source in the Los Tuxtlas volcanic field, Mexico. International Journal of Earth Science (Geologische Rundschau). 2006;**95**:871-901

[47] Ahmad T, Tarney J. Geochemistry and petrogenesis of Garhwal volcanics: Implications for evolution of the north Indian lithosphere. Precambrian Research. 1991;**50**:69-88

[48] Radhakrishna T, Joseph M. Geochemistry and petrogenesis of the Proterozoic dykes in Tamil nadu, southern India: Another example of the Archaean lithospheric mantle source. Geologische Rundschau. 1998;**87**:268-282

[49] Ringwood AE. Composition and Petrology of the Earth's Mantle. London: Mc Graw Hill; 1975. p. 618

[50] Sun SS, Nesbitt RW, Sharaskin AY. Geochemical characteristics of mid ocean ridge basalts. Earth & Planetary Science Letters. 1979;**44**:119-138

[51] Pearce JA, Norry MJ. Petrogenetic implications of Ti, Zr, Y and Nb variations in volcanic rocks. Contribution to Mineralogy & Petrology. 1979;**69**:33-47

[52] De Paolo DJ. Trace element and isotopic effects of combined wall rock assimilation and fractional crystallization. Earth & Planetary Science Letters. 1981;**53**:189-202

[53] Taylor SR, McLennan SM. The Continental Crust: Its Composition and Evolution. Oxford: Blackwell; 1985

[54] Hanyu T, Tatsumi Y, Nakai S, Chang Q, Miyazaki T, Sato K, et al. Contribution of slab melting and slab dehydration to magmatism in the NE Japan arc for the last 25 Myr: Constraints from geochemistry. Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems. 2006;**7**(8):1-29

[55] Thompson RN, Morrison MA. Asthenospheric and lower lithospheric mantle contributions to continental extension magmatism: An example from the British Tertiary Province. Chemical Geology. 1988;**68**:1-15

[56] Wang XL, Zhou JC, Qiu JS, Jiang SY, Shi YR. Geochronology and geochemistry of Neoproterozoic mafic rocks from western Hunan, South China: Implications for petrogenesis and post-orogenic extension. Geological Magazine. 2008;**145**:215-233

[57] Saunders AD, Tarney J. Back-arc basins. In: Floyd PA, editor. Oceanic Basalts. Glasgow: Blackie; 1991. pp. 219-263

[58] Holm PE. The geochemical fingerprints of different tectonomagmatic environments using hygromagmatophile element abundances of tholeiitic basalts and basaltic andesites. Chemical Geology. 1985;**51**:303-323

[59] Ernst RE, Buchan KL. Large mafic magmatic events through time and links to mantle-plume heads. In: Ernst RE, Buchan KL, editors. Mantle Plumes: Their Identification through Time. Vol. 352. Boulder, Colorado: Geological Society America, Special Paper; 2001. pp. 483-575

[60] Goodenough KM, Upton BGJ, Ellam RM. Long term memory of subduction processes in the lithospheric mantle: Evidence from the geochemistry of basic dykes in the Gardar Province of South Greenland. Journal of the Geological Society of London. 2002;**159**:705-714

[61] Mir AR, Alvi SH, Balaram V. Geochemistry, petrogenesis and tectonic significance of the newer dolerites from

*Proterozoic Newer Dolerite Dyke Swarm Magmatism in the Singhbhum Craton, Eastern India DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104833*

the Singhbhum Orissa craton, eastern Indian shield. International Geology Review. 2011a;**53**(1):46-60

[62] Mir AR, Alvi SH, Balaram V. Geochemistry of the mafic dykes in parts of the Singhbhum granitoid complex: Petrogenesis and tectonic setting. Arabian Journal of Geosciences. 2011;**4**:933-943

[63] Mir AR, Alvi SH, Balaram V, Bhat FA, Sumira Z, Dar SA. A subduction zone geochemical characteristic of the newer dolerite dykes in the Singhbhum craton, eastern India. International Research Journal of Geology and Mining. 2013;**3**(6):213-223

[64] Bose MK. Proterozoic dykes from Singhbhum granite pluton. In: Srivastava S, Rao C, editors. Indian dykes. New Delhi: Narosa Publication; 2008. pp. 413-445

[65] Sengupta P, Ray A, Pramanik S. Mineralogical and chemical characteristics of newer dolerite dyke around Keonjhar, Orissa: Implication for hydrothermal activity in subduction zone setting. Journal of Earth System Science. 2014;**123**(4):887-904

[66] Dasgupta P, Ray A, Chakraborti TM. Geochemical characterisation of the Neoarchaean newer dolerite dykes of the Bahalda region, Singhbhum craton, Odisha, India: Implication for petrogenesis. Journal of Earth System Science. 2019;**128**:216

[67] Pandey OP, Mezger K, Upadhyay D, Paul D, Singh AK, Söderlund U, et al. Major-trace element and Sr-Nd isotope compositions of mafic dykes of the Singhbhum craton: Insights into evolution of the lithospheric mantle. Lithos. 2021;**105959**:382-383

[68] Bose MK. Mafic–ultramafic magmatism in the eastern Indian craton – A review. Geological Survey of India. 2000;**55**:227-258

[69] Mallick AK, Sarkar A. Geochronology and geochemistry of mafic dykes from Precambrians of Keonjhar, Orissa. Indian Minerals. 1994;**48**:3-24

[70] Kumar A, Parashuramulu V, Shankar R, Besse J. Evidence for a Neoarchean LIP in the Singhbhum craton, eastern India: Implications to Vaalbara supercontinent. Precambrian Research. 2017;**292**:163-174

## *Edited by Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan*

Geochemistry is crucial in understanding and controlling environmental concerns. The effects of global warming are also being monitored through geochemical measurements in the atmosphere and oceans. Increasingly sensitive instrumentation enables continuous monitoring of pollution levels in the air, water, and on land, allowing highquality data to support and enforce environmental regulations governing emissions. As a result, geochemistry has become an essential part of scientific and political discussion on many environmental challenges. Improving our knowledge of life on Earth may be the most essential job done by geochemists. This book includes a variety of data relevant to geochemistry and highlights research related to mineral wealth and mining and the development of strategies and scientific standards to significantly increase oil exploitation in the long term. It also provides information on the effects of geochemical components on humans and the environment, as well as environmental and geochemical exploration surveys through sediments.

Published in London, UK © 2022 IntechOpen © weisschr / iStock

Geochemistry and Mineral Resources

Geochemistry

and Mineral Resources

*Edited by Hosam M. Saleh* 

*and Amal I. Hassan*