**3.1 X-ray diffraction (XRD)**

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is one of the most widely used techniques to differentiate NPs. Typically; XRD provides crystal structure, time-related nature, lattice parameters, and crystal letter size. The following parameter is expected to benefit from Scherrer statistics to extend the most robust XRD size for specific tests. The advantage of XRD techniques, routinely performed on powder-type samples, is usually followed by drying its corresponding colloidal solutions, resulting in common mathematical values with a measure of volume. The consistency of these particles can be determined by comparing the position and strength concerning the peaks and conduct of the guidelines provided by the International Center for Diffraction Data (ICDD, formerly known as the Joint Diversity Guidelines Committee, JCPDS) database. However, it is probably not suitable for non-manufactured materials, and XRD peaks expanded with particles with a size less than 3 nm. Upadhyay et al. found the standard crystallite size of the magnetite NPs using the X-ray line extension and noticed staying at a selection of the number 9–53 nm [62]. The pensiveness of the XRD peaks is caused by particle size/crystallite and lattice types {other than metal extensions [42]. XRD-based size is usually significant compared to so-called magnetic size because of the sub domain names that exist in particles where they always coincide if you look at the same direction and if the particle is a single domain. In contrast, the limited TEM size was more prominent than computer-generated XRD models with larger particles; assuming the particle size is greater than 50 nm, more than one or more crystal boundaries are in their region. XRD cannot distinguish between two parameters; hence, some models' actual (TEM) size can be very noticeable compared to the 50–55 nm determined by the Scherrer formula. Dai and his colleagues set up a very small Au NP that was expected to improve significantly by following 〈111〉 (instead compared to 〈220〉 one) while the top-to-front analogy was the largest XRD size [43]. Similarly, Li and

peers found that when preparing copper telluride nanostructures of different types (i.e., cubes, vessels, and rods), the total stiffness between the associated XRD peaks differed in the number of growing particles [44, 63].
