**3. Effects of acrylamide and its by-products**

#### **3.1 Reproductive toxicity**

ACR can play a direct role in the toxicological effects of sperm morphology, motility, and production, as well as being an indirect cause of reproductive issues as shown by various studies done on ACR exposed male mice [16, 19]. Repeated injections of ACR (20 mg/kg) into male rats for 20 days resulted in dose-dependent reductions in testosterone and prolactin levels [21]. In another study it was observed, after a onemonth experiment, ACR exposure at levels of 1.25–24 mg/kg/day in their drinking water lowered fertility rates and litter sizes in mice, while increasing morphological anomalies of sperm and embryo resorption rates. In animal toxicity experiments

using ACR, decreased reproductive behaviour, testicular atrophy, aberrant spermatogenesis, and poor sperm quality are some of the symptoms [13]. Peripheral neuropathies caused by ACR, such as decreased hind-limb function, may impede copulatory behaviour, mounting responses, and intromission, eventually impact the sperm deposition in the vagina and uterus, as well as cause hormonal alterations. In terms of hormonal mechanisms of action, ACR decreased serum testosterone and prolactin levels, which could contribute to testicular shrinkage and sperm motility [22].
