**2.5 Towards improving livelihoods of peri-urban farmers**

A recent project funded by the Japan Social Development Fund and coordinated by the Ghana Commercial Agriculture Project, the Ghana Peri-urban Vegetables Value Chain Project (GPVVCP) is seeking to develop urban and peri-urban agriculture to improve on the livelihood of farmers as well as the safety of produce for consumers. To this end, select sites within the Greater Accra, Volta, and Ashanti regions have been targeted to pilot such a venture. The project involves setting up farmer-managed irrigation systems including the use of solar pumps and construction of washrooms and packhouses for farmers. The latter is to facilitate cleaning and value addition to produce in order to improve farmers' incomes.

## **2.6 Production in-home and backyard gardens**

Vegetable production in-home and backyard gardens has a long history in Ghana, although much attention was given to it as a result of the Operation Feed Yourself (OFY) policy initiated by the Acheampong government in the 1970s. Many people established farms in any space they could lay their hands on, including spaces in their homes [6]. Following the end of the government, some people still maintained their farms whereas others went on to start their own gardens when they got the opportunity. The tradition and idea of the home or backyard garden have remained with many Ghanaians who still establish their own gardens when they get the opportunity. Obuobie et al. [7] estimate that in the city of Accra alone, between 50–70 ha of land distributed among 80,000 homes (about 60% of houses in the city) are used for home gardens. Nevertheless, this figure includes land used for cultivating other crops and livestock. Following concerns about the safety of vegetables produced by some commercial farmers in the urban and peri-urban centers, more people with the wherewithal in terms of space and time have started their own backyard gardens. There are many social media groups such as the Facebook group, home gardening, Ghana where people with no farming experience can get technical knowledge about growing certain vegetables and crops in general in their backyard. Vegetables grown in the home and backyard gardens are often for home consumption, although in some cases some produce may be sold when there is excess.

#### **2.7 Seasonal and off-season production at formal irrigation sites or banks of rivers**

Attempts by the Government of Ghana and other private entities to prevent the over-reliance of agriculture on rain have led to the development of irrigation sites to enable off-season or nearly all-year-round cultivation of vegetables and other important agricultural commodities. The capacity of these irrigation schemes ranges from a few hectares to hundreds and even thousands of hectares, making use of rivers, lakes, and existing or newly created dams. A typical example of such sites is the Tono dam located in the Kassena-Nankana District and managed by the Irrigation Company of Upper Region Ltd. This dam spanning about 2.5 miles serves close to 2500 ha of land used for the cultivation of various vegetables and crops. With general oversight and development by the Ghana Irrigation Development Authority in collaboration with key stakeholders and management by Scheme Management Entities, a total of 57 schemes spread across the entire country exist to provide irrigation for the production of different vegetables and crops over a total area 16175 ha [8]. These sites may be located in rural areas or within urban centers depending on the source of water for irrigation. Invariably, those within the urban centers play a key role in urban vegetable production. More recently, the Government of Ghana under the leadership of His Excellency, Nana Addo Dankwah Akuffo-Addo rolled out a policy named 'One Village One Dam' (1V1D) which sought to create small earth dams in certain villages to serve as sources of water for agriculture (both crops and livestock). A total of 439 dams were planned, 375 of which were in various stages of completion, with 64 of them were between 90–100% completed as at October 2020 [9]. Each dam was constructed to provide irrigation water for at least 5 ha of farmland. Nevertheless, recent evidence from Sore [10] of the MyJoyOnline team shows that some of the dams were poorly constructed and almost dried up during the dry season and as such, they were only used as a source of drinking water for livestock but not for the production of vegetables or other crops.

Regardless, the prospects look good for access to irrigation by farmers for vegetable production throughout the country with the proposed development of an additional 8 irrigation sites by Ghana Irrigation Development Authority (GIDA) with funding from the Export Development and Agricultural Investment Fund (EDAIF) [8]. These new projects will cover over 12,000 ha spread between 7 regions within the country. Moreover, farmers in the Upper East Region will have an additional boost for vegetable production from the impending construction of the Pwalugu Multipurpose Irrigation Project in the Talensi District which will supply irrigation water for about 25,000 ha of land and benefit 15,000 people.

## **3. Challenges associated with vegetable production in Ghana**

#### **3.1 Limited number of varieties**

Vegetables continue to play important role in the diet of most Ghanaian households. These vegetables are eaten raw or cooked, serving as a major source of plant protein. There are two major sources namely local and exotic. Examples of the local vegetables are *kontomire* (cocoa yam leaves), cassava leaves, pepper, *bokorbokor*, *alefu* and many others. Examples of exotic vegetables are cabbage, carrot, lettuce, French beans, common beans (*Phaseolus vulgaris*), cowpea (*Vigna unguiculata*) among others. Compared to other food crops such as the root and tubers, and cereals, vegetable growers face the challenge of a limited number of improved varieties. *Harnessing Technologies for Vegetable Cultivation: A Panacea for Food and Nutrition Insecurity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101877*

The majority of the local vegetable have not been improved or new varieties released to replace the old ones leading to reduced productivity due to low climate adaptation. The number of vegetables consumed in Ghana has decreased due to the continual selection and domestication of just few crops. People acquire a preference for specific vegetable types. As a result, they go for just those vegetables, which also inform farmers to grow only those vegetables. They reuse their stored seeds for successive planting, resulting in the extinction of other kinds [11]. Imported seeds are used by other farmers who grow exotic crops like cabbage, carrots, lettuce, and so on. Their preferences inform seed importers on which kinds to bring to market, resulting in a reduction in the number of types of those vegetables available. The exotic vegetables on the other hand are also limited due to the fact that breeding is not done in country due to the climatic requirement needed for the reproductive phase of the crop. Farmers, therefore, rely on only a few tried and tested varieties that have been introduced over the years leading to low productivity as a result of diseases and pest build-up. Most of the breeding programs have centered on the cereals, root and tubers, and the legumes to the neglect of the vegetables.

### **3.2 Scarcity of seeds**

Another constraint is inadequate access to high-quality improved vegetable seed cultivars. Vegetable farmers in Ghana and other countries in sub-Saharan Africa are constrained by factors such as poor quality and availability of seeds. For the local vegetables, farmers rely on farmer-saved seeds from previous harvests, local markets, or from friends whiles others also buy seedlings from the local markets. These sources are normally unreliable, seeds are sometimes of poor quality (physical and genetic) leading to low productivity and high cost of production. The imported seeds also have problems with acclimatization as most of them come from the temperate regions and when they are exposed immediately to tropical conditions lose viability quickly. Improper storage condition at the retail shops also affects the quality.

In Ghana, it is difficult to find vegetable seed growers, unlike staple crops. The Grains and Legumes Development Board (GLDB) not only lacks the capacity to absorb all breeder seeds generated by research institutions, but it also lacks the capacity to create sufficient amounts of foundation seed to fulfill the demands of seed businesses and seed producers. When research institutions are unable to sell all of their breeder seeds generated in a given year, they have difficulty producing the next year. The situation has worsened due to a lack of gene banks dedicated to preserving these long-forgotten indigenous crop types. These vegetables, on the other hand, are rich in genes that are both tolerant of abiotic and resistant to biotic stimuli. Because the majority of them have become extinct, intentional efforts are undertaken to bring those kinds from outside of Ghana whenever they are required for improvement.

#### **3.3 Absence of a functional vegetable seed system**

Two main seed systems operate in Ghana namely: formal and informal (traditional) [12]. However, in certain farmer-based organizations and community seed production, a combination of these two major seed systems has been used [13]. The formal seed system, which is governed by state legislation and overseen by Research Institutes, Universities, and the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), is controlled. By providing stakeholders with knowledge and samples to work with, these institutes reinforce the relevance of seed certification. MOFA is in charge of approximately 80% of the operations (registration of seed growers, cleaning, sorting and grading of seeds, seed inspection and certification, and packaging for sales

only at the regional capitals). Bureaucracy at this level causes delays in providing services to seed firms, resulting in a loss of production. A weak distribution system exists from the stage of approved seed production to farmers, as well as annual supply failing to satisfy farmer demand. In contrast to vegetables, crops such as maize, rice sorghum, millet, peanuts, and cowpea have recently garnered increased financial focus in varietal development and release. Few crops, such as tomato, pepper, and okra, have been developed, but because of a poor seed distribution method, they have a low adoption rate [12].

## **3.4 Overreliance on imported seeds of common vegetables**

Since only a few locally improved varieties are available for only a crop like pepper and non-existent for the other vegetables [14], vegetable growers have to rely on imported seeds for cultivation. Imported vegetable seeds are mostly available at various agro-input dealers throughout the country and mainly deal in crops such as tomato, pepper, garden eggs, and onions [15]. Since farmers in most remote communities' lack access to agro-input dealers who sell vegetable seeds, they often fall victim to poor-quality seeds that may be obtained from uncertified sources. Variability in the timing and distribution of rainfall is also preventing farmers from purchasing certified seeds because they are frightened of accruing big debts if their crops fail completely due to bad weather [12]. In comparison, most development programs concentrate on staples like maize, cassava, and rice, with little attention paid to vegetables. The problem may also be attributed to a lack of research into our indigenous vegetables, which makes them unable to compete with alreadyimproved imported crops, making it harder for farmers to choose and reproduce them. As a result, they are unable to exhibit their entire potential. Because of these qualities, farmers often accept exotic vegetables that have been enhanced to farmers, influencing food and nutritional security in the country.

#### **3.5 Infrastructure challenges (irrigation and processing facilities)**

Improved infrastructure in the areas of irrigation, roads, transport, processing, and storage are needed for enhanced vegetable production. About 80–90% of agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa relies on rainfall for cultivation and Ghana is no exception. The major and minor planting seasons have been erratic over the years [16]. Rainfall variability over time as a result of global warming and climate change has posed a danger to vegetable productivity and food security [17]. Crops that require less water, such as cassava and maize, can thrive during these times [16]. Vegetables, on the other hand, are succulent crops that contain around 90% water [18], necessitating a continual supply of water during their growth cycle. Vegetable production is mainly under rain-fed or irrigation depending on the season and location. Water shortages can impact the output of vegetables like tomatoes, garden eggs, and notably exotic ones like cabbage, carrot, and lettuce at any stage of their development. To facilitate access to water, most vegetables in Ghana are grown near a water source. Where available, irrigation facilities offer great opportunities for vegetable growers. However, these are not available in most countries in adequate amounts to meet the needs of farmers in all communities. According to the World Bank [19] irrigated agriculture represents only 20 percent of the total cultivated land and contributes 40 percent of the total food produced worldwide. Due to this inadequacy, most vegetable growers especially in urban and peri-urban areas use other alternative water sources for the growing of vegetables. Quansah et al. [20] reported that 70% of vegetable growers in Ghana use waste drain water for irrigation, resulting in poor microbiological quality. Another challenge of vegetable production is

#### *Harnessing Technologies for Vegetable Cultivation: A Panacea for Food and Nutrition Insecurity… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101877*

poor road infrastructure. The perishable nature of most of the vegetables requires that they reach the markets and consumers in time to reduce post-harvest losses. The majority of the vegetable production takes place in the rural areas characterized by poor road network infrastructure making it difficult for farmers to get their produce to the market centers. Farmers in rural areas experience high post-harvest losses due to the poor nature of the road as the middle women who buy these vegetables find it difficult to reach the farmers [21, 22]. Linked to the poor road network is the high cost of transport and inappropriate means of transport.

Lack of or low mechanization equipment needed for seedbed preparation also poses a challenge in vegetable production [23]. Manual vegetable production is labor intensive. Besides, lack of handheld or small machines affects the timely undertaking of certain activities such as weeding, pests, and diseases control. Lack of or inappropriate storage conditions contribute to post-harvest losses in vegetable production. Apart from a few supermarkets that are located in urban areas, most of the vegetables are sold in the open market where they are exposed to harsh weather conditions. The humid tropical condition in Ghana predisposes these vegetables to deterioration in storage. Such storage conditions also make it easy for insects and rodents to attack [21].

Another challenge with vegetable production is glut which occurs at peak harvest due to the fact that most farmers cultivate their vegetables at the same time when the rains set in. This simultaneous harvesting of vegetables and glut are complicated with the absence of processing facilities for these vegetables. Most processing facilities in the country are for cereals, grains, legumes, cassava, and a few vegetables with extended storage life, such as pepper. Due to a lack of storage facilities for perishable food like vegetables, seed growers are forced to sell their products at a low price in order to not incur more cost for having to dispose them off.

## **3.6 Contamination from abuse and misuse of agrochemicals in vegetable cultivation**

In Ghana, chemical pesticides are frequently used to control pests and diseases in vegetable cultivation. According to [24], pesticides are used by 87% of vegetable producers in Ghana. However, concerns about the negative impacts of this usage on public health and the environment are increasing. Agrochemical handling and storage, application, and disposal procedures were investigated in other research, and severe abuse and misuse of agrochemicals were discovered [25]. It was discovered that certain agrochemical manufacturers do not protect their products from direct or indirect sunlight, causing them to lose their effectiveness in controlling insects or pests. Most farmers do not use the prescribed dosage of agrochemicals during application and also do not wear Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). Over 80% of tomato growers in Ghana's northern region do not use personal protective equipment (PPE) [26]. Some farmers utilize agrochemicals that are outdated, prohibited, or unlicensed. The most significant problem occurs when farmers use agrochemicals too close to harvesting time, causing the preharvest period to be missed before the crop is harvested for sale. Some farmers dumped leftover pesticides in bodies of water, while others poured them onto their fields. Empty containers are dumped on the ground, while others are used as drinking containers [27].

Another challenge associated with vegetable production in Ghana is contaminants found on harvested produce. Heavy metals such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), cadmium (Cd), and cobalt (Co) have been reported on some vegetables [28, 29]. These contaminants come from the use of waste water for irrigation, inappropriate use of chemical fertilizers, weedicides, pesticides, and insecticides application [28, 30]. In assessing the level of pesticide contamination on

vegetables sold in markets in some selected regional capitals, [31] reports that 78% of the samples had chlorpyrifos residue on them. Non-adherence to harvest interval on the labels of these chemicals is a major cause of such chemical residues reported to be above the minimum recommended levels [29].
