*3.4.2. Our constructivist point of view*

From our constructivist point of view, knowledge is intrinsically linked to individuals and their experiences. The constructivist knowledge-based management [2] centered on the human highlights the difficulty of formulating and then storing tacit knowledge embodied by individuals. Rather, it encourages exchanges and interactions between individuals using, often informally, the creative power of their tacit knowledge. Emphasis is placed on the quality of the relationship between partners to create value.

*Knowledge-Based Management: the Creative Power of Tacit Knowledge in the "Age of New… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101947*

### **3.5. Three fundamental postulates about knowledge within organizations**

Our observations and experiments within the industry led us to set forth three postulates about knowledge within organizations: (1) Knowledge is not an object; (2) Knowledge is linked to the action, and (3) Knowledge used and created in organizations includes two main categories of knowledge. We define these postulates hereafter.

### *3.5.1. First postulate: Knowledge is not an object*

Considering Subsection 3.1, we can postulate that knowledge is not an object that can be processed independently of the person who has to act. Consequently, formalized and codified knowledge that is independent from individual is not more than data or information. Data or Information can only be assimilated to knowledge when the interpretative frameworks of participants have a large commensurability. In that case, participants commonly understand data or information in the same way. Furthermore, taking back the Haeckel formulation [12], we must discern the knowledge of knower and the codification of that knowledge (p. 295).

Thus, knowledge cannot be considered as if it was data or information. The conditions and limits under which knowledge can be managed as data or information are as follows: Knowledge is explicit, stable, and well defined, recognized by a specific homogeneous population; Knowledge is "apparently" independent of people and situations; Knowledge is dissociated from action and can be thought of as an object.

*Exception cases***:**

Knowledge is highly complex and/or has a very high degree of specialization.

### *3.5.2. Second postulate: Knowledge is linked to the action*

Within organizations, activities contributing to value-added processes, and support processes, defined by Porter [13], use and create knowledge. Knowledge is depending of the context and the situation that allow using and creating this knowledge. Knowledge is partially characterized by the aim of the activities. In particular, the role of the stakeholder, involved with these activities, must be taken into account; knowledge is linked to their decisions, their actions, and their relationships with the surrounding systems (people and artifacts).

## *3.5.3. Third postulate: Knowledge used and created in organizations includes two main categories of knowledge*

Within an organization, knowledge consists of, on the one hand, "know-how" (explicit knowledge comprising all tangible elements), (on the other hand, "skills" (tacit knowledge defined by Polanyi [6]), which comprises intangible elements.

The tangible elements take the shape of formalized knowledge in a physical format (databases, procedures, plans, models, algorithms, and analysis and synthesis documents) or are embedded into automated management systems (conception and production systems) and in products.

The intangible elements are inherent to the individuals, either as collective knowledge ("routines"—the logic of individual or collective actions defined by Nelson and Winter [14]), or as personal knowledge: skills, tricks, trade secrets, knowledge of history and decision-making contexts; and environmental knowledge (customers, competitors, technologies, socioeconomic influences).
