**While relying on information systems for knowledge management, CROs tend to focus on a few major functions: information archiving, classifying, sharing, and searching.**

### **Case illustration:**

All four case firms rely on the information system to collect and archive the magnanimous data of clinical trials. In addition, the information system serves as an important channel for employees' communication. They can either share or ask questions to their colleagues through the system. Furthermore, employees can learn from the information system, which stores necessary information for training. Among these cases, IQVIA and FBTC establish a specific information system for dealing with only clinical trial-related data with concerns of data complexity and fear of knowledge leak.

### **Discussion:**

The utilization of information technology or information systems to facilitate knowledge management has been recognized for a long time [23, 24]. The information system possesses the capacity to accumulate large quantities of various types of data useful for new or junior employees to learn, and for project team members to share project-executing experiences. While information systems can be used to facilitate knowledge management, as the knowledge involved is explicit, there still exist limitations when knowledge involved is tacit in nature. Companies need to find other ways, besides information systems, to implement knowledge management.

### **Proposition 5:**
