**2. Parental alienation is a form of family violence**

PA is a poorly understood form of violence [24]. The behavioural strategies used by the AP during alienation constitute emotional abuse of the child and may include tactics such as ignoring (e.g., denying effective response to the child's emotional requests), rejecting (e.g., spurning, constant criticism), isolating (e.g., preventing the child from spending time with family and friends), terrorising (e.g., threatening the child with abandonment or harm), exploiting (e.g., making the child responsible for the care of the parent or other children), and corrupting (e.g., involving the child in immoral or illegal activities) the child [15, 25–29]. Haines, Matthewson, and Turnbull [2] found similarities between PA behaviours and the brainwashing stratagems seen in cults. The AP may inflict abuse directly or indirectly, saying to the child that the TP has done or will do any of these actions.

Consequently, the child develops a sense of worthlessness and of being unloved and endangered [30]. Fostering and encouraging cognitive biases and attitudes in the child that promote denigration and estrangement of the TP is itself a form of emotional abuse [18]. Common PA behaviours by the AP are listed in **Table 1**. In PA processes, the child is victimised [32] and should receive the same attention as other children victims of parental maltreatment. Prioritising the wellbeing of the child requires urgent legal and clinical intervention. In this regard, it is necessary to develop competencies within the family justice system, child protection, and mental health services to evaluate and prescribe this indispensable family intervention efficiently.

PA is a process that generally starts with the deterioration of the relationship between both parents, and evolves over time. Emotional or physical abuse between the parents can occur but not necessarily. A common first step of PA, and a form of coercive control often seen in high-conflict divorces, is the threat to prevent the other parent to see and spending time with the child. During his interview, Göran revealed, "When I said 'I'm going to separate', she told me twice, 'You can forget your kids', I think she said that to make me stay. Otherwise, why would she act like that if we had such a terrible relationship at the end?" Because of this manipulative strategy from his partner, Göran accepted staying and, in this way, guaranteed access to the children for some time, although the relationship between the couple continue to crumble.

Frequently, a power imbalance between both parents precedes PA, and the AP increasingly overpowers the TP in family relations. Among the personality traits found in APs is a wish to control and dominate others [33, 34]. Göran reported, "At the beginning, there were a lot of hassles, and usually she refused to stop the discussions. She would demand me to realise how stupid I was or that I was wrong. But each time she undermined my authority towards the children more." Recent research suggested that we must better understand the abusive power dynamics between the couple if we aim to be more effective in our intervention methods [35]. The deterioration of the parents' relationship deepens over time and extends first


#### **Table 1.**

*Common PA behaviours by the AP [19, 31].*

#### *Parental Alienation:* In the Child's Worst Interest *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101231*

to the children and eventually to the extended family. Often the AP openly displays verbal aggressive behaviours towards the TP in the presence of the child. APs justify their aggressiveness in their manipulative strategies, arguing that the TP is dangerous and therefore they need to protect the child and themselves [26]. This creates fear in the child that they might be harmed by the TP or are not secure in their presence.

The scientific literature identifies personality features among APs characteristic of the DSM's cluster B personality disorders, including narcissistic, antisocial, and borderline, besides other mental problems and substance abuse [19, 36–38]. Among the narcissistic traits, a sense of entitlement produces strong confidence when making decisions regarding the child and makes APs feel they are right and superior to others. As a result, they likely disregard court orders if they are against their wishes [2].

The alienating strategies have dire consequences and long-term effects on the child's mental health and wellbeing [9]. The alliance established between the AP and the child during alienating processes is in many ways similar to the trauma bonding victims of maltreatment create with their abusers [39]. The child feels physically and emotionally distressed when the AP is not present because of the manufactured belief that the AP is the only person they can trust and with whom they are safe. The child, then, defends the AP in every circumstance, even when the AP treats them harshly or rudely. In such cases, the child changes their behaviour to please the AP as much as possible. Subsequently, the AP positively reinforces the child and creates a behavioural pattern by conditioning.

In extreme cases, the AP can manipulate the child's believes to the extent they create false memories and the idea that the TP has physically or sexually abused them. In consequence, the child deploys a range of alienating behaviours against the TP. Common PA behaviours by the child are listed in **Table 2**.

In sum, PA is a form of family violence in which the AP uses the child instrumentally through a set of emotionally abusive behavioural strategies to harm the TP. Revenge is the primary emotion fuelling the AP's alienating behaviour. The traumatic bond between the AP and the child is reflected in the alienating behaviours displayed by the child against the TP, and parenting is severely disturbed (see **Figure 1**).


#### **Table 2.**

*PA behavioural manifestations by the alienated child [19, 40].*

*Parenting - Challenges of Child Rearing in a Changing Society*

**Figure 1.** *Parenting is highly dysfunctional in parenting alienation.*
