**1.2 Parenting and Early Childhood protective factors**

Research increasingly focuses on strengths and protective factors that bolster resilience in life [22, 23]. Not all children with emergency situations such as conflict and natural disaster exposure develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Dempsey, [10]) and reactions may vary over the first days or weeks following a crisis; mainly dependent on the parents or caregiver's emotional state and availability to their children. Consistent, predictable, quality care can alleviate the psychosocial impact of conflict and disasters by giving children a sense of normalcy, stability, structure and hope for the future. However, emergency and conflict situations often lack quality services and resources. In most conflicts, care and education infrastructure are often targets of violence because of the stability and support it provides. Pre-schools and schools are often destroyed or closed due to hazardous conditions, depriving families and children the opportunity to learn and socialize in a safe place with a sense of routine [24, 25]. An affectionate family, positive shared emotional interactions, social support, shared ideology/religion, and a sense of community during adversity contribute to the development of family and child coping skills, mental health, and academic achievement, [26]. Zahr [27] found a relationship between the availability of parents and the development of secure attachment in Lebanese kindergarten children exposed to war. Barber [28–30] showed that young Palestinian and Balkan children's emotional well-being and development were protected from the negative impact of military violence by positive and protective relationships with caregivers. Palestinian children whose parents used positive styles of comforting were found to be resilient, and those who had loving, non-rejecting parents were more creative and efficient [31–33]. When exposed to frightening events, resilient children can regain their secure base by bonding and being with loving, protective, and responsive caregivers. Massad et al. [34] studied mental health of young children in Gaza and found that resilience in children was associated with the parents' or caregivers' health and a higher maternal level of formal education. Studies show that children who are supported by a caring and responsive parent and/or caregiver at a young age, cope with stress more effectively [35]. A supportive relationship can reduce a child's reaction to stress and help to build the foundational resilience fundamental to long-term health development [36].

It is essential to understand protective factors to promote strategies and supports that foster resilience and reduce negative consequences. With an increasing number of refugees around the globe, and an ever-deepening understanding of neuroscience of early childhood adverse influences, we argue that more research is needed so policy makers, nonprofit organizations, aid agencies, mental health professionals, educators and educational institutions can make informed and culturally relevant decisions/policies that truly help families be resilient at various stages of the refugee and/or resettlement process. While there may be some aspects of the refugee experience that are universal, we include three populations with different socio-political histories because their challenges and needs can differ. As very few studies have specifically examined parenting in refugee contexts, this exploratory study highlights

the voices of parents navigating difficult circumstances in three contexts: refugees within their own country, refugee camps outside of their country, and refugees who have resettled in a host country.
