**4. Types of conditions that cause people to flee**

Though not the specific focus of this chapter, we believe that from a social justice and human rights stance, the multiple reasons people are forced to or choose to leave their homes must be named. It is highly problematic to only center narratives of the refugee experience and *where* people go without highlighting *why* they flee. Refugee contexts are symptoms of a global humanitarian problem with historical, economic and socio-political roots that must be analyzed and researched if we wish to mitigate the problem. Persecution comes in many forms and include religious, political, gender, sexual orientation, internal unrest, and gang violence in addition to an increase in climate change refugees [48]. People often make the difficult choice to leave their home in dire economic situations that induce hardship and limit their opportunities for the future. War, civil unrest, and occupation are major impetuses for fleeing and the communities described in this chapter fall into this latter category. Regardless of the reason, making the decision to leave is high-risk and a significant stressor on families and parenting. The following sections outline three distinct contexts of displacement (In-Country Refugee Camps, Out-of-Country Refugee Camps, and Resettlement to and New Country) followed by a findings section. The chapter concludes by comparing and contrasting the three contexts and recommendations.

#### **5. Context**

#### **5.1 Palestine context**

In Palestine the refugee population continues to grow, and some families have lived in a refugee camp for over 70 years. There are 58 Palestinian refugee camps in the West Bank, Gaza, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon. Palestinian refugee children and families are especially at risk with most living in refugee camps rife with ongoing conflict, violence, and discrimination. Palestinian families lack representation of

their rights, experience overcrowding and lack resources and basic services such as education and health care [49]. UNHCR estimates that the average length of major protracted refugee situations has increased from 9 years in 1993 to 17 years at the end of 2003 to [50]. Until the recent Syrian crisis, one in three refugees in the world are Palestinian. The Syrian refugee situation echoes much of the Palestinian plight. Identifying both successes and gaps can provide information to better support the unique needs of families living in refugee camps throughout the world.

Many of the camps were created in 1948. More were added after the wars in 1967 and 1973 and more recently after the war in Syria for Syrian Palestinians. Palestinians are in a unique situation as United Nations Relief and Works agency for Palestinian refugees [49] was created just for refugees from Palestine. They define a refugee from Palestine as "persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine during the period of June 1st 1946, to May 15th 1948, and who lost both home and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 conflict [49]." The descendants of Palestinian refugee males, including adopted children, are also eligible for registration. The Agency began operations in 1950 to address the needs of about 750,000 Palestine refugees. Today, some 5 million Palestinian refugees are eligible for UNRWA services. The 1951 Convention for Refugees focused on people who had lost their homes and livelihoods because of World War II. The revised 1967 Protocol eliminated time limits and geographical boundaries. Though the definition of a Palestinian refugee was originally a stopgap measures for a temporary problem, laws have not been changed in this protracted situation.

The stories in this section come from camps in the West Bank, where about 775,000 refugees live. The camps are overcrowded, lack basic infrastructures such as roads or sanitation, and often during times of crisis, can go months without electricity. Even when electricity is available, it is inconsistent. Unemployment and under employment levels are high and typically half of a family's income goes just to food. Many families depend on the income of family and friends working in Israel. The frequent raids on Palestinian towns, refugee camps, and villages result in no predictability or security for people in the West Bank and Gaza. Despite the lack of infrastructure, trained teachers, and access to school, the Palestinians in Palestine have one of the highest literacy rates in the Middle East [51]. This resilience is even more remarkable considering that Israeli Military can block children from attending school at any time and have entered schools and taken children to prison. UNRWA provides educational resources for half a million children in the various Palestinian refugee camps. The insufficiency of international donations became starkly clear when the US cut \$300 million from UNRWA's budget and many schools in the camps were closed, classes were combined and teachers were laid off [52].

#### **5.2 Greece context**

Greece has been struggling to deal with the massive influx of migrants from war-torn nations of the Middle East and Africa who are experiencing deplorable conditions in detention centers [53, 54]. Greece currently hosts approximately 60,000 refugees with about 40,000 on the mainland and 20,000 on the islands of Lesbos, Chios, Kos, Samos and Leros. Since 2015, people fleeing conflict in the Middle East and South and Central Asia viewed Greece as a possible entry point to safety and Europe. Today, Greece has become a place to hold people seeking asylum. The European Union currently has adopted border restrictions and other edicts that prevent people seeking sanctuary from entering Europe. For various political and COVID-related reasons, the refugees in Greece can no longer legally travel to other parts of Europe. Therefore, many of the refugees are likely to remain in the country resulting in Greece shouldering much of the responsibility for those seeking refuge and safety.

The camps are overcrowded conditions and lack basic amenities. In cold months, refugees have built fires in their tents which lead to fatalities as well as health conditions. Moria camp on Lesbos was built for 2200 people, however, until the fire in September 2020, 18,300 people were living in the camp. In addition, unaccompanied minors, women traveling with young children are especially vulnerated and need protection from discrimination, inadequate medical care, violence, genderbased violence, and trafficking.

Those seeking asylum and not living in camps are held in detention centers or have moved to urban areas. Those in the urban areas rarely find work to support their families [55, 56]. Integration is key to ensuring refugees and asylees build successful lives in their new home. This is a big challenge in any country and exacerbated in Greece because of its ongoing economic difficulties. The detention centers are overcrowded and lack sanitary conditions, "all significantly below international and national standards and may amount to inhuman or degrading treatment" according to the 2021 Amnesty International Greece 2020 report. Almost all the refugees have witnessed or directly experienced violence, have been traumatized and require psychosocial support, medical aid and other human services. Greece and Italy cannot be expected to bear this responsibility on their own.

#### **5.3 US resettlement context**

Resettlement is not a decision that families make lightly, as a refugee typically cannot return to their home country for years, or sometimes forever. Resettlement often entails permanent separation from friends and relatives. Parents make tremendous sacrifices to escape war and violence, and to seek a safe place to raise their family. More than 3 million refugees have been resettled in the United States since 1975 [57]. Refugees arriving in a new country face a multitude of changes. Often highly educated professionals such as doctors end up driving taxis, or professors work in retail. Working these temporary, low-paying jobs adversely impacts individuals' professional identity. Being resettled, people come with hope and perhaps dreams, but loss of family, friends, and homes bring challenges even among that hope. Refugee families have often survived atrocities beyond imagination and their oppression does not end with the initial flight.

Family adjustment in a country of resettlement can be quite difficult. Family members are often reluctant to discuss assaults and other harmful acts, as they can face ostracism from their family, other refugees, and host communities.

To survive and 'fit in', parents/caregivers who are resettling may adopt and adapt superficially to the messages of institutional and state agents, but at the same time remake these messages and transform them into ideas that are more culturally comfortable [58]. Due to the economic stress refugees and asylees face, women report finding themselves in a particularly stressful position. The families typically need both parents to work outside the home to pay for their bills.

Refugees who resettle in the U.S. have a wide range of experiences. No matter where refugees land, it is best if they are met at the airport when they arrive and are oriented and welcomed to their new home. Families must start over where life is completely different. They have left their family and friends behind, and many families have witnessed and/or experienced violence, war, unsanitary conditions, and food insecurity. Unfortunately, many people in the U.S. see refugees as people who pose a threat to: national security, jobs and economic stability, their children's exposure to diversity. Additionally, negative media portrayal of immigrants contribute to deficit stereotypes and religion discrimination toward Muslims was fomented in the US's last administration [59].

Some refugees have special immigrant visas, such as offered to Afghans and Iraqis who assisted the U.S. military forces in their home countries and who now face retribution. Refugees without special immigrant visas are subject to intense scrutiny, including multiple interviews, ongoing background checks and biometric checks run through Interpol's international police databases. Refugees must do interviews with U.S. Homeland Security agents who often apply arbitrary criteria. (For example, if the agent does not like the way you talk or the way you dress, you can be denied entry) [60]. Each refugee receives a one-time payment of \$1125 to set up their new life in a new country and aid agencies provide acclimation support for the first 90 days in the country. Employment assistance lasts 180 days, or until a refugee is offered the first available job. Refugees are required to pay back the airfare for the flight to the United States, and few airlines provide discounts.
