**1. Introduction**

Malaysia is notable for its plural society, where the Malays are living alongside two other major ethnic groups, Chinese and Indians [1]. Combined with minor ethnicities and mixed groups [2], they make up a diverse culture [3]. Like other countries with multicultural backgrounds, racial identification has a significant impact on individual daily engagements with other people of different races [4], children's identity development and self-esteem [5], and ethnic consciousness [6]. Concurrently, multiculturalism also plays a role in parenting through unique childrearing strategies, and interactions between parents and children as well as among family members [7]. As the unique set of beliefs and behaviours belonging to an ethnic group, culture shape how parents care for their offspring. Accordingly, there are cultural variations in parenting practices, and cross-cultural differences in parenting have long been debated [8]. In general, the Western and Asian parenting practices have frequently been compared [9], with the latter being more commonly associated with

authoritarian parenting [10, 11]. In a similar vein, some variations in the parenting attitudes among parents from different cultural backgrounds have been found. In a multinational study involving nine countries, it was found that Thai parents assume equal responsibilities of parents and children for negative parenting, but American parents took this rather personally [12]. Subsequently, over the decades, it is interesting to see the series of arguments built around the evidence supporting, or opposing, the largely authoritarian nature of Asian parenting [13, 14].

Culture- or ethnic-specific parenting values are governed by cultural norms and shape the physical (e.g., motor and speech development of children), psychosocial (e.g., emotional regulation ability and prosocial behaviours), and educational expectations (e.g., compliance to teachers and homework completion) in raising children [15]. Furthermore, culture directly influences parenting cognitions and practices [12], and indirectly affects the mental health of both parents and children. In many Asian countries, family values such as filial piety are still strongly held, although there are ethnic differences in the way these ideals are being practiced [16]. Despite the culture-specific parenting practices, the modernisation process of a country might lead to the gradual replacement of these distinct practices by modern, universal parenting that is commonly shared across ethnicities [17]. However, merely being an advanced country may not change the deep-seated culturally influenced parenting values. In a study comparing parents in Japan and the United States, findings show that they have different priorities in parenting even though both are equally developed nations [18].

#### **1.1 Theoretical perspective of parenting in a multicultural country**

The theoretical model in this review extends from Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory [19]**,** which holds that the interrelationship between the interpersonal and wider environmental factors play a role in a child's development. The complex interconnected systems start with the microsystem, within which a child directly interacts with parents and siblings, through which they obtain emotional support, play, and safety. External to the family, the child's peers help the child gain their sense of self and social development, and teachers provide scaffolding for the child to develop social skills and appropriate behaviors. In the mesosystem, there is a linkage between family and school or between family and community that creates a positive attitude for the child's learning. Next, the family socioeconomic status and parents' work conditions form the exosystem which indirectly affects children. The final system, the macrosystem, is formed by the cultural and religious beliefs of the family, and mass media. The macrosystem influences the child in a much broader context. Overall, these systems hugely impact the social and cognitive development of a child through culturally influenced parenting. Different ethnic groups in Malaysia have different culturally defined family structures and values that produce a pattern of parenting styles, practices and parent-child interactions that extend from the macrosystem to the microsystem.

#### **1.2 Purpose of the present study**

Cross-cultural studies on parenting have demonstrated how culture plays a role in parenting behaviour [8], parent-child relationship [20], and children's perception of parenting [21]. With the increasingly rapid modernisation of Asia, it is important to examine the concurrent changes in the elements of parenting which has previously been influenced by culture. It is particularly important to explore these in a multicultural country like Malaysia where the universal and culture-specific parenting norms may co-exist in the society. Furthermore, despite increasing research

interests in cross-cultural parenting and the promotion of Malaysia as a country with rich multicultural backgrounds, the existing relevant literature is limited. Without prior knowledge of the existing parenting situation in the country, it could be hard to identify the research gaps and hence address the need. The purpose of this review is to develop an understanding of parenting as practised by parents of various ethnic groups in Malaysia. It specifically aims to assess, synthesize, and organise the available research evidence on parenting behaviours and parent-child interactions in Malaysia. To do this, the review is based on the following research questions: what kind of parenting behaviours (styles and practices) are shown by Malaysian parents, and how is their parent-child interaction?.
