**9. Discussion**

This intervention does not use cognitive (talking or classroom based) approaches, a key element of this intervention would appear to be that the facilitator and the student are guided by the same principles used for teaching horses, which focus on reading body language and responding appropriately in the moment. The course teaches through practical simulation rather than verbal explanation and uses primarily non-verbal methods (through rehearsal) to potentially positively impact on the emotions and behaviour of the students. The students are coached to success throughout the intervention which enables them to rehearse and achieve successful embodied communication with the horses throughout the course.

Embodied pedagogy is defined as an educational program which brings together body and mind in a physical and mental act of knowledge, skill and behaviour creation [42]. Embodied communication transcends linguistic capabilities, proclivities and differences and seems to offer a universal language that humans share with other mammals. This mode of communication is available to us as human mammals for learning as a pre-language ability [43]. Through this intervention as participants rehearse the embodied skills through 'playing' with the horse they become proficient at communicating calmly. The 'learning' appears to be rehearsed and reinforced through repetition thus enabling them to feel calm and assertive.

Arguably this embodied or pre-speech capability to communicate with other species as with young children using 'inter-natural' embodied mechanisms may offer an opportunity to disrupt maladaptive behaviours previously established by participants to deal with communication and emotions [43]. This learning process may indeed therefore, offer safe opportunities to rehearse effective calm communication.

It is particularly important when evaluating an intervention to consider the qualities that render it effective. Participants on this intervention have to try to understand the point of view of another being, the horse a prey animal, in order to develop effectiveness when communicating through their bodies. As a result of this course participants learnt to 'listen' to another 'being' through their body language and rehearse this skill throughout the course [44].

The people who are generally referred to this intervention have a wide variety of different behavioural and mental health issues as outlined here many of which are associated with experiencing Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE's) such as abuse, neglect or witnessing violence in the home. Through evaluation of this intervention it is interesting to note that many leave the course with similar benefits the most consistent and strong of which is calmness thus enabling participants to re-engage with services, education and relationships. With referrers to the intervention (primarily social workers and mental health services) reporting rapid and effective changes in behaviour. As one participant said following completion of the course 'I feel reborn'. Does using embodied inter-species interventions offer opportunities for those for whom 'talk' based interventions and traditional service models are not working to gain beneficial outcomes?

The intervention considered here would lend itself to a more robust study on effectiveness using a randomised controlled trial particularly in relation to ensuring statistical reliability. Access to school/work attendance and achievement records could also be explored pre and post intervention. Further study of this intervention would also benefit from detailed economic analysis of the potential future costs of not treating people for whom violent behaviour and lack of success in talk-based treatment are primary problems.
