**3. Prospects for on-Moon research**

### **3.1 Problems, and their content and structure**

There are various proposals for research to be carried out on the Moon. Some of those proposals may prove useful, while others, not [11]. The Moon near the Earth is the only body close to it. Therefore, not counting the Earth, the Moon is the only body that can be used for the study and exploration of outer space. It seems that such activities should be carried out along three lines. It is necessary to study the Earth, the Sun, and outer space from the Moon. For this purpose, an Earth Service should be established on the visible side of the Moon, and a Space Service, on its opposite side. Solar exploration will be additionally performed by both Services.

The mission of the Earth Service is to continuously monitor and analyze all processes and phenomena that occur on the Earth. Observations should be carried out using optical means in all ranges of the spectrum. In addition, other available methods known in astronomy for measuring the physical characteristics of the Earth, such as the methods of radio astronomy, *γ*-astronomy, methods for measuring the magnetic properties of the Earth's surface, and others, should be used. The results of such measurements will provide a better insight into the processes taking place on the Earth. As a result, it will become possible to improve methods for the long-term forecasting of weather and such catastrophic events as tropical cyclones, hurricanes, typhoons, etc. Continuous observations of the Earth will provide reliable data on many events and processes occurring on the planet: the state of ice conditions in the southern and northern oceans, the dynamics of snow cover, various seasonal changes of the Earth's surface, fire hazard of territories, volcanic eruptions, man-made accidents and disasters, the fall of large meteorites, as well as various military actions on a global scale.

All this will contribute to a safer and more stable habitation of humans on the Earth.

### *The Evolution of the Moon's Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102392*

The Solar Service, located on both opposite hemispheres, will allow the observation of processes on the Sun in an almost continuous mode. Solar flares affect the dynamics of the Earth's atmosphere, and they presently cause many dangerous atmospheric phenomena [12]. The Sun's activity, manifested in the number of sunspots, varies periodically. Such periods correlate with the periods of the Sun's movement around the center of mass of the Solar-system [12, 13]. Their duration is 22 years with two sub-periods each lasting 11 years. In addition, there are also large periods lasting hundreds of years. Possibly, those fluctuations of the Sun's activity cause the short-period variations of the Earth's climate [13].

The study of solar processes will allow a more detailed understanding of the processes occurring on stars. The two Solar Services will host the equipment used for studying the Sun and stars from the Earth. The effectiveness of the use of this equipment on the Moon is expected to be much higher, as there is no cloudiness and no atmosphere there. Due to the small force of gravity, structures cumbersome on the Earth will appear weighing much less on the Moon.

The Space Service is the most important part of human activity on the Moon. The importance and relevance of its tasks to the solution of many challenging problems will permanently grow in time. At an early stage, this service will carry out all studies currently being carried out on the Earth with the help of Earth's satellites. As this service evolves, these tasks will be supplemented with new ones that cannot be accomplished with the help of satellites. One of such tasks is the communication with spacecraft sent into deep space. The absence of atmosphere and intrinsic magnetic field on the Moon will make it possible to carry out such connections in a more stable manner.

What divisions should be included in these two services? Each service should consist of the following three departments: (1) Research Department; (2) Engineering Department; and (3) Greenhouse Department.

The task of the Research Department is to carry out works on the study of the Earth, the Sun, and space. The task of the Engineering and Technical Departments is to create the material base of the service and ensure its functioning. The task of the Greenhouse Department is to support life on the Moon, provide food for inhabitants, and to ensure life in all structures of the greenhouse economy.

At the first stage, the tasks of the Greenhouse Department will come as the main ones, since the human civilization presently has no experience in supporting life in extraterrestrial conditions. Work on the Earth and artificial earth satellites to create life in artificial conditions should begin in advance. Some experience in this area already exists. It is necessary to study this experience and formulate a research program for the creation of various life elements in extra-terrestrial conditions in relation to the Moon. After accomplishing this work, we can initiate the development of a greenhouse project on the Moon.

Until the full-fledged functioning of the greenhouse economy begins on the Moon, research and engineering works will mainly be carried out with the help of automatic machines and mechanisms controlled from the Earth.

#### **3.2 Transportation on the Moon**

For moving on the Moon, it will be necessary to create walking and running vehicles. Animals on the Earth, two- and four-legged, can move at a decent speed comparable with the speed of wheeled vehicles. But an animal can move at this speed in off-road conditions. When moving, the animal observes its path and puts its foot on the ground taking into account all the circumstances arising at the point of contact with the ground. Modern means of observation, monitoring, and control make it possible to create a mechanical leg of a vehicle that will function no worse

than the leg of the fastest animal. In further development, a vehicle with mechanical legs will reach in off-road conditions the speed of a wheeled vehicle on a good road.

Such vehicles with mechanical legs can be supplemented with mechanical arms or some legs can be provided with the function of arms. Mechanical arms will help the vehicle to extricate itself from emergency situations: when overturning, when driving in dangerous areas, etc. Control algorithms shall be developed for different situations and with time the reliability of such vehicles will approach 100%.

When driving on established routes, a vehicle with mechanical arms can clear the most disturbing obstacles out of the way. In this way, paths and roads for this transport will be created, along which the speed of movement will be increased.

Such vehicles, equipped with navigation aids, will be able to move with or without man. All works related to the delivery of goods will be executed without people. This will greatly simplify, and reduce the cost of, moving goods, since there will be no need in using life support systems for people.

Long-distance movements, for example, those between the Earth and the Space Services, will be performed using jet engines along ballistic trajectories. In jet engines on the Earth, fuel burns in an oxidizing agent, the combustion products acquire a high speed, and the jet stream propels the vehicle, for example, a spacecraft. In lunar jet engines, lunar sand and dust will be used as the jet substance. The jet vehicle must possess the energy required to impart the speed of the jet stream to this material. This energy can be the electrical energy stored in batteries. The batteries will be charged by solar panels during the lunar day.

The acceleration of the substance can be carried out electrically. For example, a charge of one sign can be imparted to a bulk material, which then enters an interelectrode space with a high voltage to undergo acceleration. In the mechanical method, the bulk material is fed to a rotating device to acquire the required speed. In this case, in order to prevent the vehicle from rotating, it is necessary to have paired devices rotating in different directions.

As the bulk material, lunar regolith can be used, which, apparently, includes terrestrial analogs in terms of its granulometric composition such as dust, powder, sand, and sandy loam.

The issue of obtaining and storing energy is a special problem that requires careful study. Apparently, in the non-polar regions of the Moon, solar energy will be sufficient. Solar panels can provide electricity that needs to be stored for the Moon night. For heating during the night and for cooling during the day, respectively heat and cold accumulators must be used. Electricity can also be generated based on the temperature difference between the lunar surface and the constanttemperature layer beneath it. This temperature difference exists both during the day and at night. Apparently, Stirling engines can be used here for doing work and for generating electricity.

#### **3.3 Materials and substances**

For the creation of the Earth and Space Services, various materials and substances are needed. Consider what is required for supporting life on the Moon. Greenhouses will need soil, water, and air to function. Soil samples can be taken from the Earth. When plants settle on them, the soil can be mixed with lunar soil, with its amount being gradually increased. Apparently, not every lunar soil is suitable for these purposes. Therefore, a lot of work needs to be done to study the lunar soil, prepare and collect the required composition, and deliver it to greenhouses.

Where can we get water? During lunar days, the Moon's surface gets heated, and the water boiled away and evaporated. It is necessary to study the distribution of

### *The Evolution of the Moon's Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102392*

temperature over the lunar surface. Somewhere closer to the poles, a negative temperature can be found. It might be possible to find ice there.

In equatorial and middle latitudes, the temperature of the lunar surface varies from hundreds of Celsius degrees during the day to hundreds of degrees below zero at night. But with depth, the layer of variable temperature must vanish, and a constant temperature must establish. How low is this temperature? If the temperature is negative, then there may be ice found at this depth.

Thus, in order to find water, one has to carry out temperature studies of the Moon, both in-depth and over the surface.

Where can we get air? On the Earth, air contains 80% of nitrogen and 20% of oxygen. There are also small amounts of other gases. Apparently, many of them are not necessary.

There are no ready air and component gases (nitrogen and oxygen) on the Moon. Therefore, they must be obtained from substances available on the Moon. It is necessary to study the composition of lunar rocks. Then, people on the Earth must develop technologies for the extraction of nitrogen and oxygen from these rocks. Subsequently, the composition of the artificial air can be optimized with the help of plants and algae. Among them are those that give off oxygen as well as other gases.

For the construction of a greenhouse, structural materials, metals, and various substances are needed. It is impossible to get them from the Earth. From the Earth, it will be necessary to transport finished products, complex instruments and tools, machines, and similar products, which are impossible to manufacture on the Moon. All necessary materials and substances must be extracted from minerals available on the Moon. That is why the Moon's geology must be well studied. On its basis, processes on the transformation of lunar minerals into necessary materials and substances should be developed on the Earth.

#### **3.4 Safety of buildings on the Moon**

Buildings on the Moon will require a lot of spent effort, money, and time. Therefore, they must be durable with a service life amounting to hundreds of years. In this regard, it will be necessary for people on the Moon to protect themselves from natural disasters. This can be soil creeps on slopes, rockfalls, meteorite falls, etc. Some of such processes and events can pose no real threat. That is why, before the start of construction, it will be necessary to perform a study of possible risks and their occurrence probabilities. As for the meteorite danger, its reality is beyond doubt, since the entire surface of the Moon, like that of all celestial bodies, is dotted with meteorite craters. Therefore, this threat must be treated with close attention. Apparently, it is necessary to conduct experimental observations on the probability, composition, and characteristics of meteorites falling onto the Moon. For this purpose, it is possible to spread a screen on the Moon's surface with means for observing and controlling the fall of meteorites. Information from such devices must be transmitted to Earth. Observations should be made over several years. They will allow scientists to obtain data on meteorite hazards, which is necessary for the design of buildings. There should be two such sites in the places of proposed construction: one on the visible side of the Moon, and the other on the opposite side.

Over the long service life of structures, there will always be a danger of being hit by large meteorites. Therefore, a vitally important part of the greenhouse must be created below the Moon's surface. Apparently, the best option would be the creation of each service near a rock hill. The greenhouse farm will be located outside the hill, with its all vitally important systems being hidden in hollow rooms inside the hill. The top of the hill will provide the reliable protection of such systems from relatively large meteorites. The greenhouse should be made sectioned. Then, in the

event of a depressurization having occurred at some section as a result of a meteorite hit, the remaining sections will automatically be cut off from the damaged section and continue to function.

### **3.5 The relations between humans in their activities on the Moon**

Services on the Moon will be created in the interests of all mankind. However, there are states on Earth the relations among which cannot be called friendly. Mutual threats are possible and wars to destroy each other are not ruled out. This situation may not radically change in the next hundreds of years. Therefore, principles to govern the relations between people of the Earth during their activities on the Moon must be formulated. Based on the conditions necessary for the successful functioning of two services on the Moon, let us try to formulate some of those principles.

First, each state has the right to take part in the creation and functioning of these services, and it will share the results obtained.

Secondly, since there are two services, it makes sense to form two groups of states, one being responsible for the service on the visible side of the Moon, and the other, on its backside.

Thirdly, having obtained permission, the representatives of one group of states will have the right to visit the territory of the service shared by the second group of states.

Fourth, each group of states shall share its achievements and results with the members of the other group at no cost.

Fifth, unfriendly and hostile relations among states on the Earth shall not be practiced by representatives of such states on the Moon.

Those who call to violate this principle will be subject to capital punishment with no statute of limitations.

Mankind already has experience of such cooperation gained in the study of Antarctica, in the Apollo-Soyuz project, and in the activities at the International Space Station. This experience can be considered successful. For cooperation on the Moon, the accumulated experience shall be widely applied.

#### **3.6 Work sequence**

Moon exploration began 50 years ago by the Soviet Union and the United States. Other countries now take part in it. This activity will be continued by different countries in the future. For making those fragmented studies fruitful, it is necessary to set common goals and formulate certain tasks. Then all the studies will add to our common knowledge of the Moon, which subsequently will allow these goals to be achieved.

Therefore, it is necessary to conduct an international discussion of the problem of Moon exploration by all interested parties. The result of this discussion should be the establishment of an International Committee for Moon Exploration. The first task of this committee shall be the development of a preliminary project on the prospects for Moon exploration.

In this project, all the goals and objectives discussed above will be concretized. This will allow different countries to unite their efforts. The International Committee will have the task of coordinating these studies, analyzing and summarizing their results, and setting further tasks.

This work will contribute to the rapprochement of the individual parties, uniting them in the implementation of large projects. This cooperation will further lead to

*The Evolution of the Moon's Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102392*

the consolidation of collaboration teams necessary for the creation of Earth and Space services.

One of these preliminary tasks is the creation of a Moon satellite. The satellite is needed as an intermediate station for flights from Earth to the Moon and back. In addition, a satellite is needed to connect the Space Service with the Earth, and the Earth and Space services with each other.

Further development of the International Committee for Moon Exploration will turn it into main mankind's organization on the exploration of the Moon and lunar works.

#### **3.7 Possible missions to be performed using Moon services**

When mankind starts establishing services on the Moon, the task may be set to provide the Moon with a long-term satellite. Previously, we have performed trajectory calculations for transforming the Apophis and 1950DA asteroids into Earth's satellites [14]. The task here is to choose an asteroid suitable for making it a Moon satellite. Apparently, the orbit of such a satellite should be circular or having a small eccentricity and a semi-major axis about 5000 km long. That is, the spacing between such an asteroid and the Moon should be equal to the above distance. The satellite's orbit must lie in the Moon's orbital plane. Such a satellite will increase the reliability of movements between the Earth and the Moon.

In astronomy, various methods are used to determine the distance from the Earth to astronomical objects. The most reliable one is the triangulation method, in which the angles of observation of a star from opposite points in the Earth's orbit are measured. The angles can be determined from the displacement of a star over the celestial sphere against the background of more distant stars. In this way, one can measure the distance to objects located at a distance of 20 parsecs (pc). In this case, the base distance is the semi-axis of the Earth's orbit *a*. On increasing the base length, the range of measured distances will increase in proportion to this length.

One can increase the base by placing one of the observation points on a spacecraft launched from the Earth along a hyperbolic orbit. The location of the star, observed on the spacecraft at some distance *r* from the Earth and communicated to it, will make it possible to determine the distance to stars located at typical distances greater than 20 pc by a factor of *r*/*a*.

We assume that a spacecraft is launched at point *A* in **Figure 8** in the Earth's orbital plane in the direction of Earth's orbital motion. Suppose, for instance, that the speed of the spacecraft relative to the Earth is 20 km/sec, and its speed relative to the Sun is 50 km/sec. At this speed, the spacecraft moves in a hyperbolic orbit, with its speed at infinity being *v*<sup>∞</sup> = 28 km/s, i.e. the spacecraft leaves the Solar system at this speed. Six months later, a similar spacecraft is directed at point *B* in the opposite direction.

**Figure 8.**

*Trajectories of a triangulation spacecraft for measuring distances to stars:* S *– the Sun;* E *– the Earth;* A *and* B *– the launch points of spacecrafts* A' *and* B'*, respectively;* yexe *– the plane of the heliocentric ecliptic coordinate system* xeyeze *for the epoch 2000.0.*


**Table 5.**

*The distance* D *to stars as determined by triangulation spacecraft, depending on the time of their movement* T *over a distance* r *from the Sun.*

The views of the starry sky seen from the spacecraft in the direction of the *ze*axis and in the opposite direction shall be sent to the Earth at certain time intervals. The view seen from the spacecraft launched at point *A* can be compared with the view of the starry sky seen from spacecraft *B* located at the same distance *r*. This will permit the measurement of distances to objects of *D* = 20*r*/*a* (in parsecs). **Table 5** shows the time of observation *T*, the distance *r* from the Sun in astronomical units, and the distance *D* to astronomical objects, which will be determined using triangulation satellites. After a year of motion, we will be able to reliably know the distance to stars located at a distance *D* = 140 pc; after ten years, at a distance of 1260 pc; and after 30 years, 3700 pc. It should be noted that at a distance of 20 pc, the distance from the Earth will be determined with an error of 20%. Therefore, with an increase of the distance *r* to the spacecraft, it will become possible to refine distances to objects located at distances smaller than the value *D* indicated in **Table 5**.

Range measurements are possible for those distances *r*, up to which the exchange with data between the Space Service on the Moon and the triangulation spacecraft is possible.

Distance *D* to astronomical objects is the basic parameter in astronomy. The sizes of an object, its speed, physical characteristics, and in some cases, it is very physical nature depending on the distance. That is why, in order to be confident in its knowledge of deep space, mankind will always be faced with the task of refining distances to space objects.

## **Acknowledgements**

The data gained in this work were obtained while performing research activities that have been conducted during two decades at the Institute of Earth's Cryosphere, Tyumen SC of SB RAS, Federal Research Center. In recent years this research project has been carried out under Contract Agreement No. 121041600047-2 with RAS. The results are based on the solution of the interaction problem for Solarsystem bodies which was obtained using the supercomputers of the Shared-Use Center at the Siberian Supercomputer Center, Institute of Computational Mathematics and Mathematical Geophysics SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. This chapter was read by my son Leonid J. Smulsky and made a number of useful suggestions.

*The Evolution of the Moon's Orbit Over 100 Million Years and Prospects for the Research… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102392*
