Meet the editor

Michael Smith received his Ph.D. from Colorado State University and then studied biophysics and computerized data handling at Johns Hopkins University, Maryland. He has been publishing on the topic of the proper interpretation of supernovae type Ia (SNe Ia) observations since 2006. Several of his articles deal with dark energy, dark matter, and Hubble's constant determinations. Lately, he has been investigating the basis for the current Hubble

tension as stemming from improper handling of the SNe Ia data and differing interpretations of the Friedmann (FLRW) model. He has also published new fundamental relations over the relations between matter, energy, spacetime, and gravity. He has published more than fifty articles in peer-reviewed journals, edited two books on cosmology, and produced six short videos for public education.

Contents

*by Michael L. Smith*

*by Eugene Terry Tatum*

of Gravitons

*by Arthur N. James*

*by Aloke Kumar Sinha*

*by Peter D. Morley*

with a Preferred Frame *by Georgy I. Burde*

*by Alexander Bogomolov*

**Preface XI**

**Chapter 1 1**

**Chapter 2 5**

**Chapter 3 15**

**Chapter 4 31**

**Chapter 5 41**

**Chapter 6 61**

**Chapter 7 75**

**Chapter 8 109**

Introductory Chapter: Introduction to Dark Matter

Dark Matter in Spiral Galaxies as the Gravitational Redshift

The Most Probable Cosmic Scale Factor Consistent with the Cosmological Principle, General Relativity and the SMPP

Cosmology and Cosmic Rays Propagation in the Relativity

Dark Energy as an Information Field and Attribute of the Universe

The Case for Cold Hydrogen Dark Matter

*by Firmin Oliveira and Michael L. Smith*

Black Holes as Possible Dark Matter

Non-Keplerian Orbits in Dark Matter

## Contents


Preface

Dark matter is a subject confined by the observational context. It is currently only indirectly observed as the puzzling motions of distant galaxies and the unpredictable rotational velocities of stars in neighboring galaxies. Attempts to observe dark matter as traditional sub-atomic particles always fail, leaving this worldly topic a major observational problem. This is very different from ordinary matter, which can be mutated, split into components, destroyed, and resurrected at will by physicists,

Dark matter was first postulated by astronomers in the mid-twentieth century to explain the seemingly non-Newtonian character of galactic dynamics. A discrepancy was observed by Fritz Zwicky for the relative velocities of three spiral galaxies circulating within a distant, small galactic group. To calculate the relative velocities of these galaxies, Zwicky made the reasonable assumption that the galactic masses are proportional to their luminosities. In that case, the galaxies behaved as if they were much more densely packed with matter than one could explain in simple terms. Since that report, it has been found that dark matter of some form is often required to properly explain the paths and velocities of large galaxies within galactic groups. Though an intriguing observation, I don't think Zwicky necessarily meant that a new type of matter was warranted but rather that the observed rotational velocities are much faster than expected and much of the matter in these galaxies is

Dark matter remained just a thought, not seriously considered a problem for many years, until the publication of the relative velocities of some bright stars of the Andromeda galaxy. The velocities of very luminous stars, which are outside the dense interior so could be observed without interfering with light, do not follow Newton's gravitational law. According to Kepler and Newton, as supported by observations of our planetary neighbors, objects more distant from a large central object should travel more slowly than those closer to the galactic center. This correlation does not hold for Andromeda though; astronomers found that past a critical distance from the center, all stars circulate at about the same angular velocity – meaning distant stars exhibit greater instantaneous velocities than those closer to the galaxy center. This is a real surprise. Similar observations of star motions in other spiral galaxies confirming this have been interpreted as necessitating the presence of something like dark matter. To bring this mystery closer to home, the Dutch astronomer Oort observed that nearby stars in our Milky Way seem to be traveling too fast when one considers only the masses calculated

The outstanding problem with dark matter is how to relate these interstellar and intergalactic observations to something on Earth. Answering this question has been the goal of many young particle physicists with dozens of aspiring theoreticians proposing a bevy of suggestions often in the form of new microscopic particle types. Up to now, observations of any new, special particle that only interacts via gravity but not electromagnetically, as required to be dark matter, have not been confirmed.

given enough energy, time, and money.

not luminous.

for our luminous neighbors.
