**8. The economic and psychosocial effects of the stigma and xenophobia associated with COVID-19**

With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, psychosocial and economic problems began to be experienced all over the world. Some of these problems were related to stigmatizing and xenophobic attitudes. Stigma can lead to disadvantages in many areas of life, including interpersonal relationships, education, and work-life. Such discriminatory attitudes can limit life opportunities, for example, through loss of income, unemployment, reduced access to housing or health care [60]. Individuals who perceive that they are stigmatized may report guilt, self-blame behavior, self-devaluation, self-isolation, low self-esteem, and being ostracized or ignored by others. Stigma is closely related to mental health problems, especially depression. Studies have found strong positive associations between stigma and depression; depression and stigma also have some common symptoms such as guilt, self-blame, and low self-esteem [61]. Reports from various countries show that discriminatory and xenophobic behavior causes food insecurity and the return of immigrants to their home countries [42]. With the rise of xenophobic tendencies in the USA, the demands for Asian Americans to return to their countries have also increased, and this has led to the greater exclusion of Asian Americans in society [62]. Asian Americans face serious problems such as physical assault, verbal abuse, coughing on themselves, being fired from shops and restaurants, discrimination, and vandalism in the workplace [63].
