**6. Xenophobia associated with COVID-19**

The effects of the pandemic, which has heavily influenced all countries in the world, are felt in many areas socially, economically, politically, and spiritually [39, 40]. Pandemics have historically been linked to political and economic relations, foreign interventions, conflict, and concerns about maintaining social control in society [41]. The COVID-19 pandemic, on the one hand, contributed to the mutual solidarity and support of states, societies, and individuals from different socioeconomic statuses, on the other hand, it also caused widespread fears and concerns that triggered the current culture of distrust and discrimination, especially against immigrants. Due to the pandemic, social and economic inequalities towards immigrants have increased, and immigrants have been discriminated against and stigmatized [42]. Immigrants have been one of the vulnerable groups that have suffered the most during the pandemic [43]. Xenophobia spread like the virus itself, affecting not only those of Chinese descent but also those of any East Asian descent or nationality [44]. The increase in the prevalence of xenophobia causes stigmatization and targeting of various groups in the society and therefore the inability to provide health services appropriately [45]. In order to evaluate xenophobia comprehensively, it is necessary to acknowledge how certain diseases and social conditions fuel fear and discrimination, and that the stigmatization of various groups in society due to the disease is an important challenge for global development [46]. Throughout history, viral diseases have often been associated with the place or regions where outbreaks first occurred. In 2015, WHO issued guidelines to stop this practice and thereby reduce prejudice and xenophobia towards these regions or people of these regions [47]. Despite these guidelines for naming diseases in order to avoid stigmatizing communication, stigmatizing expressions such as "Spanish flu" and "Mexican swine flu" are frequently used. Such stigmatizing statements suggest that there is a relationship between strangers and a particular epidemic, leading to increased fear of strangers [48]. Efforts are ongoing to prevent the use of false and stigmatizing statements. However, as the number of COVID-19 cases increased in the US and around the world in early 2020, terms such as Chinese virus, Kung-Flu, Chinese coronavirus, and Wuhan virus were used for the COVID-19 virus by leaders in the US and some sections of society [49]. Such naming of the virus has led to the legitimization of the negativities towards Asian communities, the disruption of treatment services, and the stigma of these communities. With the study of Reny and Barreto, it has been experimentally proven that linking the pandemic to a social group in this way will activate negative attitudes towards Asian communities [49]. Even the smallest changes in expression styles and communication are reflected in the way socio-cultural structures are presented and perceived. The style and language used in the transmission of information about the virus can contribute greatly to the spread of xenophobia as well as to its prevention. In the current situation, the widespread stigmatization of immigrants with negative expressions causes an increase in xenophobia. It is seen that racist acts against Asians and Asian-Americans have increased in connection with

*Perspective Chapter: Psychosocial Impact of COVID-19 – Stigma and Xenophobia DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101527*

COVID-19 cases in the USA, and Asian societies have become vulnerable to verbal and physical abuse due to widespread prejudices [45]. Verbal and physical abuse of Asian Americans has been reported at subway stations in Los Angeles and New York [45]. It was reported that 1135 verbal abuse, embarrassment, and physical attacks against Asian Americans took place in the USA in 2 weeks [42]. In another study conducted in Malaysia, it was determined that xenophobia and racism towards Rohingyas increased due to the COVID-19 pandemic. This is supported by reports of increased hate speech against the Rohingya, both on social media and in government discourse [50]. In a study conducted with Asian university students in Poland, it was determined that the COVID-19 pandemic triggered xenophobic attitudes towards students. 61.2% of the students stated that they were exposed to prejudice, and 47.1% stated that these prejudiced attitudes occurred on public transport and on the street. Reactions towards Asian students are keeping away from them, changing seats on the bus, maintaining a safe distance, covering mouth and nose, showing judgmental facial expressions, pointing fingers and speaking in a whisper, spitting, throwing beer bottles, and using offensive language [51]. Another study found that 90% of respondents in China displayed discriminatory attitudes towards people from Hubei province, such as reporting their presence to local authorities, avoiding them, and actively removing them from their communities [52]. There are concerns that verbal and physical attacks on Asians may continue to increase during the pandemic. In hospitals, some patients have been observed verbally abusing Asian service providers and refusing care. Some Asians and Asian-Americans stated that they may not seek help for fear of discrimination, both in public spaces and within the healthcare system. This puts communities at risk. The increase in racist acts against Asian communities, especially due to fear and misinformation, puts these communities at risk in terms of not only their physical health but also their mental health [42].
