**2.6 Virtual reality**

Virtual Reality (VR) enables students to become involved in active learning, rather than being passive in the learning process. VR now paved the ground for more advanced technologies such as Augmented Reality (AR) and Extended Reality (XR). These technologies/tools deliver a simulated environment to students that is similar, to some extent, to a real one which they can experience it in 3D-visual form. For instance, biology students can learn about the functioning of the heart through a simulated environment, where they can open the layers of organs and study the functioning of its inner parts, such as the atria, ventricles, arteries, and veins involved in pumping the blood. It has been ascertained that with VR techniques students can have a knowledge retention rate of 75% compared to 10% with reading and 5% from lectures [25]. A recent systematic review [26] on the impact of VR on students' performance has identified 24 relevant studies, out of which reported a positive impact of VR on performance, whilst seven revealed a negative one, and six registered no significant impact. Moreover, VR techniques can help in the acquisition of procedural and declarative knowledge as well as the development of skills, such as problem solving, communication, and collaboration [25]. VR technologies, being costly, are being used minimally; however, with new development making them cost-effective, they could become one of the major components of online education in the future. Nevertheless, some limitations have been identified in research relating to VR in higher education. In particular, most of the studies evaluating VR technologies have been focused on the usability of the VR application, rather than the impact of such technologies on learning outcomes [27].

### **2.7 Internet of Things (IoT)**

Internet of Things (IoT) refers to the small objects connected to the internet that can communicate with each other. These objects can work without human intervention, thus enabling automation and control. IoT is being applied in various sectors, and it has immense scope in the education sector [28]. For instance, it can be used for tracking and monitoring a range of activities in school, such as monitoring school buses, providing automated lighting in classrooms, thereby reducing

electricity wastage and enhancing sustainability, monitoring students' health using devices, biometric attendance, student location tracking, and tracking students' academic progress. IoT could also dramatically change the ways universities work and enhance student learning in many disciplines and at any level. Furthermore, it could enhance learning outcomes by providing richer learning experiences, improved operational efficiency, and by gaining real-time, actionable, insight into student performance [29]. A few institutions have already been using applications exploiting IoT, and widescale implementation has yet to be achieved [30].
