**2. Leadership concepts**

#### **2.1 A framework for conversation**

In **Figure 1**, the author presents a framework of leadership concepts. He created the framework during the summer months of 2021 while writing this chapter. The framework draws upon a handful of studies about leadership and the insights garnered by the author over a two-year period. The author believes the framework will be useful to all persons, including students.

*The Imperative—and the Challenges—of Introducing a Citizen-Leader Development Program… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100002*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Characteristics of a leader and the leadership process. Source: Created by author.*

The interior portion of the model focuses on three sets of characteristics important to a leader: values, capabilities, and aspirations. The dual headed arrows suggest the reciprocal interdependence among the three sets.

Using systems jargon nicely explained by Meadows [10], each set of characteristics is an intangible stock. At any point in time, each has magnitude that can—at least in theory—be measured. Over time, a stock's magnitude can rise or decline, due to the influence of flows and feedback loops.

The exterior portion of the model highlights a six-step leadership process for addressing circumstances to create benefits for stakeholders. As suggested by the numbered sequence of steps and the action-words used for labels, the process is dynamic: it involves *flows* of activity. Furthermore, complex challenges may call for repeated iterations of the process. That idea is consistent with Kolb's "Cycle of Experiential Learning" [11], which calls for students to engage in iterative rounds of (a) experience, (b) reflection, (c) conceptualization, and (d) experimentation.

The dotted boundary in the interior of the model suggests the interdependence among the three stocks and the outer flow of the unfolding process. Existing characteristics of the leader will influence the outcome of a round of steps. In turn, the outcome and the insights garnered provide feedback that influences the magnitude of the leader's characteristics.

#### **2.2 Linking the framework to the literature**

When contemplating the best way to link the leadership framework of **Figure 1** to literature about leadership, the author wrestled with two approaches.

The first approach was to select a representative sample of literature, to briefly summarize each source, and to ask the reader to trace the ideas included in each summary back to the diagram. The author rejected that approach because it placed burdens on the reader and in many instances, sources were relevant to more than one component of the framework.

Instead, the author chose the second approach; that is, to provide an example of one or more sources pertinent to each concept. Although this adds more

precision, it does make the explanation choppier, and leads to some sources being referenced on more than one occasion.

## **2.3 Characteristics important to a leader**

## *2.3.1 Values*

In the eyes of many experts, the best place to start a conversation about leadership is values. Komives, Wagner, and Associates [7] explain the "Social Change Model of Leadership Development". The first version was created in 1996; yet it has stood the test of time. The model proposes individuals should gain clarity about three personal sets of values: individual values (consciousness of self, congruence, commitment); group values (collaboration, common purpose, and controversy with civility); and community values (citizenship). Once they do so, they are better prepared to engage in "relationship-based leadership."

Based on decades of research involving surveys, personal narratives, and case studies, Kouzes and Posner [12] identify practices of effective leadership. The first practice, "Model the Way" (pp. 47–70), and the first two commitments embedded in that practice, involve (a) clarifying one's own values to help affirm shared values and (b) setting an example by living shared values and helping others to do so. They go full circle: in the last practice they described, they call for celebration of values and victories after any initiative.

#### *2.3.2 Capabilities*

The author regards capabilities as a broad concept that incorporates others such as skills, abilities, and knowledge. Capabilities can evolve over time.

Maxwell [1] emphasizes that leadership is a collection of skills that can be cultivated over time. In contrast to management, which focuses on maintaining existing systems and processes, leadership is essential for moving the organization in new directions. Others report that across time and countries, two of the four most important attributes followers seek in their leaders are the abilities to be (a) competent and (b) forward looking ([9], pp. 30–31); that the range of skills important to a leader include agility to adapt to ever-changing circumstances [2]; or that because social change is organic and occurs in systems, there is a need for adaptability [3].

In the current era, collaboration is an increasingly important process that is based on the ability to build relationships, and then to effectively navigate interests among groups of people within an organization, across organizations, and even across for-profit, non-profit, and government sectors [13].

#### *2.3.3 Aspirations*

Kearns Goodwin [4] describes the lives of Abraham Lincoln, Theodore Roosevelt, Franklin Roosevelt, and Lyndon Johnson. She addresses the coming of age of each young man; difficult life-experiences that forged their resilience of character; and finally, as President, their ability to successfully respond to their respective challenges. At the outset, she poses a range of questions, including "Where does ambition come from?" and "Is leadership possible without a purpose larger than personal ambition (p. xiv)?" To get things started, she quotes Lincoln at the age of 23, when he announced his intention to run for the state legislature (p. 3):

"Every man is said to have his peculiar ambition. … I have no other so great as that of being truly esteemed of my fellow men, by rendering myself worthy of their esteem. How far I shall succeed in gratifying this ambition is yet to be developed."

*The Imperative—and the Challenges—of Introducing a Citizen-Leader Development Program… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100002*

Although Lincoln and the other three presidents depicted are a special case, the author of this chapter maintains that helping undergraduates develop a sense of aspiration—even if aspirations may change over time ([7], pp. 51–52)—is an extremely important outcome, one central to early-stage leadership development.

#### **2.4 The leadership process**

#### *2.4.1 Emergence of context and setting*

Some analysts, especially in the current era, start discussions about leadership by emphasizing context. Hull, Robertson, and Mortimer [6] are first and foremost concerned about sustainability in this, the Anthropocene era, characterized by interdependence between human and non-human systems and the emergence of "wicked problems". Efforts to address problems call for system awareness. They are certainly not alone. Stroh [14] for one insists that social entrepreneurs must be adept at understanding system interactions.

## *2.4.2 Develop human relationships*

Developing human relationships is crucial to the leadership process. There are many types of interpersonal interactions that provide opportunities for genuine leadership to be demonstrated, and therefore to build trust and respect in the eyes of others [1]. Cashman [2] emphasizes that good leaders must be good coaches, helping member of the organization grow. Kouzes and Posner [12] indicate that followers want leaders who are honest and inspiring; and in turn, they advise that effective leaders must enable others to act. Kearns Goodwin relates in touching terms the genuine humility and sincere relationships FDR formed with his fellow "polios" when learning to deal with the affliction in Warm Springs Georgia ([4], pp. 171–174).

Chaleff [15] breaks new ground and concentrates on the follower. He asserts that the leader and follower are united by purpose. He elaborates the "courage"—the breadth and depth of character—needed for a person to "assume responsibility", "serve", "challenge", "participate in transformation" and "take moral action" in an organization.

#### *2.4.3 Evaluate circumstances*

Adner [16] tells innovators from the business world they must be mindful of the roles of all stakeholders in an ecosystem. Why is that? Other companies in the supply chain may bear "co-innovation risk" if they too must create new products or processes to help launch the initiative. Other companies downstream may face "adaptation risk" if they must adjust products or processes to accommodate the initiative. Thus, the risk and possible success for the innovator is contingent on risks confronting other stakeholders.

#### *2.4.4 Articulate a purpose*

MacMillan and Thompson [17] focus on the social entrepreneur who seeks to introduce an innovation dedicated to creating social wealth for multiple stakeholders. That effort calls for both individual ingenuity and the ability to navigate and align networks of stakeholders. Nonetheless, as indicated by the title of their Chapter 1, they stress that the very first step for such an entrepreneur is to "articulate the targeted problem and substantiate the proposed solution." Worth noting

is that each entrepreneur must achieve their own clarity of purpose and feasibility before making efforts to convince others (pp. 3–4).

### *2.4.5 Motivate others*

Cashman stresses that a leader must be able to demonstrate "Story Mastery"; that is, a leader must be able to draw upon personal stories that genuinely touch others, thereby enabling the leader to inspire others to engage in a common purpose ([2], pp. 45–57). Gallo [18] believes that if done with honesty and skill, storytelling is recognized by people from all arenas as a powerful way of connecting with, inspiring, and unifying groups of people to achieve a common purpose. Additional advice is that leaders must be able to "Inspire a Shared Vision and "Encourage the Heart" [12].

### *2.4.6 Alter the existing system*

System alteration has long been and continues to be a part of discussion about the process of leadership [3, 6, 14]. Meadows [10] provides an excellent introductory overview of concepts. She identifies six system traps (archetypes) and introduces twelve leverage points of increasing impact—but numbered in descending order—that may be used to alter an existing system. The author places the leverage points of Meadows into two groups. Alterations 12 through 6 are undertaken to *modify* an existing system by changing the magnitude of stocks, the volume or direction of flows, or the influence of feedback loops. Alterations 5 through 1 are undertaken to *transform* a system by taking steps to change the rules, membership, or goals of a system, or even to develop new high-level perspectives about the purpose of the system.
