**3. Best pedagogical practices**

As graduate students, our education is largely devoted to mastering knowledge of our discipline and undertaking and completing novel research. Still, as part of the academy, we recognize that an integral part of our job is teaching. If we are lucky enough to secure a tenure-track position, we know that one of the most important aspects of earning tenure is our ability to teach effectively. Yet, little time in our graduate training is devoted to working with students. Ironically, although "teaching is often considered to be a distant cousin of the 'real' work of a 'true' political scientist, especially at research institutions, the greatest exposure that the largest number of people have to political science is not through research, but through teaching" ([4], p. 10). Furthermore, it is through teaching that "directly affects who chooses to become a political scientist" ([4], p. 10).

If teaching is truly important, why do graduate schools devote such little time to it? Many early-career faculty members learn to teach on the job. When we teach, we are sharing our mastery of the material and discussing the important debates in our field. In this sense, we are sharing knowledge with our students. Yet, for students to be successful, conscientious faculty members eventually learn that there is a fundamental difference between teaching and pedagogy. Teaching involves sharing information, while pedagogy focuses on how students learn -- higher-order learning, writing, researching, and developing strong oratory skills ([10], p. 2). The faculty member's knowledge of the material is just the start in becoming an effective teacher. Teaching students how to learn is as important --if not more – than sharing knowledge. Graduate schools would be doing a great service to devote more time to teaching their students pedagogy.

With the changing demographics of students, faculty members are likely to encounter more students who do not have the adequate preparation for college in their K-12 programs. In many high schools, students succeed by memorizing concepts. In college, however, we expect our students to develop higher-order learning skills (e.g., the ability to apply an abstract or complex theory to novel situations). Many students feel like a deer caught in the headlights. As Nunn [9] points out, "Frustration and resentment build when students do not understand why in the world an instructor requires something that is unfamiliar to them."

There are (at least) five strategies that faculty members can use to help students succeed in political science classes:


First, transparency in our expectations and offering pedagogical rationales in our classes help the student understand what the faculty member is trying to achieve. It also helps the faculty member know that the student understands the expectations of the course. For example, a faculty member should explain why she believes a theory is important, what it means to the student, and how the student can apply the theory to her understanding of society. Some faculty members may believe this is "babying" the student ([9], p. 16). There are distinct benefits for the student to struggle and feel uncomfortable in the learning process. Bjork and Bjork [11] call this idea "desired difficulties." There is a substantial difference, however, in helping the student understand the significance of what the faculty member is teaching and providing the "desired difficulty" in applying the concept to other situations, that is, the learning process. A student should not have to read the "tea leaves" regarding what the instructor expects. Instead, let the student develop critical reasoning skills based on the knowledge shared by the faculty member to help the student succeed in her academic, career, and life goals. Transparency in our expectations and offering pedagogical justification should be outlined on the syllabus with reminders in class at key times in the semester.

Second, every syllabus should have student-learning outcomes (SLO's) – specific, "well defined goals related to an issue of substance and depth, expected to lead to observable results" ([12], p. 49). Virtually all syllabi clearly explain the course material, the graded work, and sources consulted in class (i.e., learning objectives). Providing student-learning outcomes can offer a learning road map of the expectations for the class. Specific skills learned and why they are valuable will help the student learn and professor teach. For example, if there is a paper in the class, the faculty member can explain specific skills a student will learn writing the paper. A student-learning outcome can be as simple as a student demonstrating she knows how to create a clear and succinct central claim. The faculty member can also show a good example of a central claim (and what it is not). Student-learning outcomes can also be used as a measurement tool for assessing the student's growth in the class. It holds both the faculty member and student accountable regarding the skills learned in class.

Third, low stakes assignments early in the semester with "early alerts" (no later than the fifth week of class in the semester system) to notify the student any areas where she needs improvement is a best practice. It can also be the difference between success and failure in the class. There is scholarly consensus (e.g., ref. [13], pp. 55, 57; [7], p. 103) that notifying students of deficiencies after midterms may be too late. Students, moreover, may need explicit feedback from their professors earlier in the semester; they may need help interpreting or reacting to instructor feedback with help-seeking behaviors that support student learning. Nunn [9] for example, gives a mini-midterm the second week of class to help the students know what to expect in her introductory Sociology course. Alternatively, a professor could offer a short reflection paper on the early readings. Explicit feedback with a grade

#### *A Demographic Shift in College Students: A Preparatory Guide for Political Scientists… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98804*

can help students understand what is expected in a professor's classes, what the student is doing correctly, and where the student needs improvement. Any student with a grade of a C- or below should be encouraged to visit the faculty member during her office hours with strategies on how to improve.

Directly related to early alerts, the fourth strategy offers a more detailed form of midterm grades. At many universities, students will receive a midterm grade at the midpoint (or slightly after) in the semester. While some universities issue midterm grades if a student is only in danger of failing, others also provide grades for students performing well in the class. Still, the student's knowledge of the grade at a specific point in time is not that helpful if she does not understand why. The grade with a rationale behind it is much more likely to help the student succeed in the latter part of the semester. Starfish and EAB, for example, are software packages many universities use to help the student understand where she stands in class and why. In my university's Summer Bridge First-Year Experience, which is exclusively reserved for FGUS, two faculty members who co-taught together met with each student individually after the student received her midterm grade. They discussed what the student was doing well, how she could improve, and what help-seeking strategies the student could engage in to remedy any issues. After the meeting, the student had one week to respond by email to reflect on the discussion. According to the faculty members and students in the class, it was the meaningful dialog that led to greater student success in that particular class as well as other classes the students were taking that semester.

And, fifth, political science (and all) faculty's knowledge of academic support resources is a vital strategy to ensure student success. Understanding our limitations as educators is central to the success of our students. After all, we do not have expertise in disability services and financial aid, as academic coaches (e.g., cramming vs. chunking), counselors, or in career services. We still have a responsibility to understand the academic support resource offerings at our institution and recognize that a one-size-fits-all approach for our students does not work. As faculty members with an interest in student success, we should refer our students to the appropriate academic support resource office. If it is online, we should forward the link to our students. If not, keep a list of the resources available and the person's name, office, phone number, and email for each office.

The five strategies discussed here are not exhaustive. Yet, they offer a strong start in the student's academic success in our political science classes. There are also strategies that are directly related to the content of our political science courses and who teaches them that will benefit our students.
