**1. Introduction**

The rapid development in information and communication technologies has significantly influenced the process of education in the past few years. An exponential increase in online education has been observed globally, which has significantly affected pedagogic approaches and learning behaviours [1]. Innovative technologies are being developed to improve the effectiveness of online learning processes. For instance, the Sandbox Collaborative, the innovation arm of Southern New Hampshire University, uses technology tools for twenty-first century collaboration, weaving audio-visual and IT systems into the fabric of this visionary incubator at the university, offering students an effective learning experience [2]. This facility is one of the examples reflecting the future of higher education that uses innovative technologies, including blockchain networks, virtual reality, artificial intelligence, and machine learning. Whilst huge investment in technology solutions is one of the major challenges for educational institutions, this can be addressed by increasing enrolments worldwide. Top institutions, such as MIT, have been allocating multi-million-dollar funds to pay for faculties to experiment with new teaching innovations [3]. Various innovative concepts are already being tested. For instance, students may subscribe for a course or modules of their choice, rather

than enrolling. Boise State institution is already implementing this concept through a Programme called 'passport to education', through subscription (\$425 a month for 6 credit hours or \$525 for 9 h on two bachelor-degree programmes), which is 30% cheaper than the traditional in-person university fee [4]. Southern New Hampshire University is testing an assessment system using artificial intelligence (AI) techniques [5], whilst Barnes & Noble Education is using an AI tool called 'bartleby write' that corrects grammar and checks for plagiarism [6].

There are various contributing factors that have led to the exponential growth in the online education. Firstly, internet access and smartphone ownership have increased significantly in the past few years, which has facilitated the remote learning process. In 2019, there were 5.1 billion unique mobile users, with a 67% global penetration rate, and 4.3 billion internet users, with a 57% global penetration rate [7], thus indicating that more than half of the world's population is connected to the internet. However, the digital divide is one of the major concerns that impact online education. Secondly, the recent COVID-19 pandemic has significantly affected the learning process due to the preventive strategies, such as school/college closures. Almost 99% of students were affected by the school closures due to the pandemic and it is estimated that over 100 million additional children will fall below the minimum proficiency level in reading as a result [8]. Online education was taken to be the most effective approach to address the issue of school closures owing to the pandemic, which led to a sudden increase in the number of students enrolling in online courses [9]. The sudden shift from the traditional classroom learning environment has left many wondering whether the adoption of online learning will continue to persist post-pandemic times, and how such a shift will impact students, teachers, and the worldwide education market. The size of the worldwide e-learning market, which stood at \$18 billion in 2019, is expected to reach \$390 billion by 2026 [10].

Despite the scope for online education being vast, the sudden shift towards it has led to serious complications in terms of delivering education in many parts of the world. Developed countries are far ahead of the developing and underdeveloped countries in terms of the internet access, the relevant infrastructure, high internet speeds, connectivity, and reliability. For example, 96% of the population of Norway has internet connection, whilst only 2% of those in Somalia have it. Moreover, it would take more than 30 h to download a 5GB video in Yemen, whilst it would take only 8 min to download the same one in Taiwan [11]. These factors, among others, are negatively affecting the adoption of e-learning in many countries. Considering these matters, this chapter provides an overview of the new technological developments in higher education, issues associated with the integration of technology into education, the attitudes of students and teachers towards the changes in the learning process, and the way forward.
