Preface

Learning disabilities are heterogeneous conditions characterized by failure to acquire, retrieve, and use information competently. Definitions and classifications of learning disabilities remain in a state of evolution. The most common forms of learning disorders involve verbal functions such as difficulties in listening, speaking, reading comprehension, and written expression (dyslexia and dysgraphia). More uncommon are nonverbal learning disabilities such as disabilities in arithmetic calculation or mathematics reasoning (dyscalculia). This book is organized into four sections that discuss neurobiology, assessment, clinical features, and treatment of learning disabilities.

The first section of the book consists of three chapters covering the definition, classification, and etiological hypothesis of learning disabilities.

Chapter 1 by Mutktamath et al. describes historical research about learning disabilities, beginning with studies on brain-injured children conducted in Germany. The authors explain the concept of learning disorder as a neurodevelopmental disorder whose origin includes the interaction of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors. They debate diagnostic criteria and classification of specific learning disabilities, suggesting that they represent not a single category of disability but rather a general category composed of disabilities in different cognitive domains.

Chapter 2 by Kubota presents a biological hypothesis about neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism, ADHD, and learning disabilities. The author suggests that these disorders could be explained by social and biological factors. Mutations in genes encoding molecules that facilitate communications between neuronal cells play a crucial role. In addition to intrinsic epigenetic deficits, the author examines extrinsic environmental factors such as malnutrition, drug use, and mental stress during the neonatal period.

Chapter 3 by Schunk regards the roles of self-regulation and self-efficacy in learning disabilities. Self-regulation consists of self-generated cognitions, while self-efficacy refers to capabilities to learn and perform actions. The author exposes social cognitive theories according to which individual function is based on reciprocal interactions between personal, behavioural, and environmental factors that are reciprocally influenced.

The second section of the book consists of four chapters about the assessment of children with learning and behavioural disorders.

Chapter 4 by Misciagna is about neuropsychological assessment. The author explains how understanding of cognitive and mental problems of children with learning disorders is an interesting challenge and discusses the various approaches that have been applied for their study, including medical, genetic, educational, epidemiologic, and experimental psychology methods. The chapter provides a descriptive review of a specialized neuropsychological approach for the assessment of learning disabilities.

Chapter 5 by Leung focuses on correlations between learning disabilities and other identities in a program conducted in schools. The author describes an approach to identifying students with learning disorders, taking account of social and cultural factors, since cultural and linguistic features influence the processes of learning.

Chapter 6 by Salman et al. discusses psychological assessment. The authors present a study evaluating the psychosocial and clinical features that can predict suicide attempts in adolescents with major depression within 28 weeks of follow-up. They selected 15 clinical trials and conducted a meta-analysis of 1211 adolescents with major depressive disorders. They analysed patients' suicidal thoughts and behaviours using different psychiatric tools. The major causes of suicide among participants were identified as lost friends, drug abuse, living alone, sexual abuse, and other related problems.

Chapter 7 by Mohan discusses counselling techniques. According to the author, families play a crucial role in children's development and the approach to them must be based on resilience which is the ability of individuals to bounce back from adversity through psychological, social, cultural and physical resources.

This concept is explored in the context of Indian society where the research was conducted. The author presents real-life case studies of difficult situations involving physical, financial, and emotional aspects.

The third section of the book consists of eight chapters about clinical features of learning and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Chapter 8 by Prasad is a brief review of dyslexia, a specific learning disability characterized by difficulty in reading, fluent word recognition, spelling, and deficits in phonological processing. The author presents definitions, diagnostic criteria, and characteristics of dyslexia according to the *International Classification of Diseases* (ICD-10) and *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders* (DSM-5) in studies conducted mainly in Asian countries.

Chapter 9 by Adel and Saleh examines characteristics of phonological deficits in developmental dyslexia, which is a learning disorder characterized by specific deficits in reading acquisition in absence of intelligence deficits or neurological damages. The authors discuss the classification of phonological errors as errors of phoneme sequence (assimilation, migration, metathesis, deletion, insertion) or errors of identity (substitutions), giving examples of common errors in dyslexic children.

Chapter 10 by Valenzuela and Martin-Ruiz is a review of the neuropsychological approach to dyslexia. The authors discuss controversies about dyslexia definitions proposed by scientific societies. They describe major clinical and cognitive-linguistic manifestations of dyslexia according to two types of patterns: "phonological dyslexia" and "visual dyslexia."

Chapter 11 by Razak et al. considers dyslexia in Malaysia, which affects about 13% of primary school children in the country. The authors describe research conducted in Malay children with dyslexia using neuropsychological tests. They demonstrate that performances are poorer in grammatical understanding and sentence repetition tests as well verbal short memory and phonological memory tests.

**VII**

and reduce social barriers.

Chapter 12 by Potter discusses dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia with an evidence-based approach. The author discusses past classifications based on the interrelationship between a wide range of variables. The author categorizes possible types of learning disabilities in dyslexia, auditory processing problems, language processing problems, reading comprehension deficits, dysgraphia, visual perceptual

and visual motor deficits, non-verbal learning deficits, and dyscalculia.

as difficulties with core numbers, reasoning, or visuo-spatial abilities.

Chapter 13 by Kunwar is about dyscalculia, a learning disorder present in 3–7 percent of school-age children. The author speaks about the meaning of the term "dyscalculia" and describes the possible problems in children with dyscalculia, such as verbal, lexical, graphical, ideognostical, semantic, and memory problems, as well

Chapter 14 by Lohre is about attentional deficits in learning disabilities. The author discusses empirical and theoretical questions and explains that attention is a cognitive function that makes an organism receptive to an external stimulus. Executive functions that consist in an overlap of sub-functions, such as the ability to register information, allocate attentional resources to a specific task, maintain attention on some aspect of the environment for an interval of time, and flexibility in changing from one idea or activity to another, all depend on the ability to pay attention.

Chapter 15 by Friedman covers autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), which are neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impairment in social interactions, motor abilities, and psycho-behavioural abilities. The author presents a hypothesis about the pathogenesis of ASD, highlighting the importance of biological factors (synapse formation, genetic factors), environmental factors (social communication, emotional and cognitive functions), and other causes (drug use, neurodegeneration, infections).

The fourth and last section of the book consists of six chapters that review treatment

Chapter 16 by Chitiyo is about evidence-based strategies in learning disabilities, particularly reading difficulties. The author describes common evidence-based strategies and interventions to improve cognitive abilities such as corrective reading (direct instructions to teach reading skills), concept mapping (creation of the visual organization in reading texts), use of direct instructions (an approach that breaks down learning into smaller steps), and peer-mediated instructional approaches

Chapter 17 by Rousseau et al. concerns the use of assistive technologies (AT). The authors present their research in which they analyse the relationship between the use of AT in writing situations and academic self-perception and exam anxiety in French-speaking school students aged 12 to 13 years with dyslexia and dysorthographia. The study was based on the administration of standardized questionnaires and interview protocols. Results confirm the use of AT is associated with benefits

Chapter 18 by Obafemi examines the use of smartwatch technologies in individuals with learning disorders. Many wearable and computer-based technologies are available such as jewellery, eyewear, or clothing such as shoes and jackets. The author describes a pilot study conducted on Nigerian students to demonstrate how wearable technologies can improve potential, promote equality of educational opportunities,

strategies for children with learning and emotional disorders.

(variation of instructions to solve problems).

in self-perception as well as feelings of self-efficacy.

Chapter 12 by Potter discusses dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia with an evidence-based approach. The author discusses past classifications based on the interrelationship between a wide range of variables. The author categorizes possible types of learning disabilities in dyslexia, auditory processing problems, language processing problems, reading comprehension deficits, dysgraphia, visual perceptual and visual motor deficits, non-verbal learning deficits, and dyscalculia.

Chapter 13 by Kunwar is about dyscalculia, a learning disorder present in 3–7 percent of school-age children. The author speaks about the meaning of the term "dyscalculia" and describes the possible problems in children with dyscalculia, such as verbal, lexical, graphical, ideognostical, semantic, and memory problems, as well as difficulties with core numbers, reasoning, or visuo-spatial abilities.

Chapter 14 by Lohre is about attentional deficits in learning disabilities. The author discusses empirical and theoretical questions and explains that attention is a cognitive function that makes an organism receptive to an external stimulus. Executive functions that consist in an overlap of sub-functions, such as the ability to register information, allocate attentional resources to a specific task, maintain attention on some aspect of the environment for an interval of time, and flexibility in changing from one idea or activity to another, all depend on the ability to pay attention.

Chapter 15 by Friedman covers autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), which are neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by impairment in social interactions, motor abilities, and psycho-behavioural abilities. The author presents a hypothesis about the pathogenesis of ASD, highlighting the importance of biological factors (synapse formation, genetic factors), environmental factors (social communication, emotional and cognitive functions), and other causes (drug use, neurodegeneration, infections).

The fourth and last section of the book consists of six chapters that review treatment strategies for children with learning and emotional disorders.

Chapter 16 by Chitiyo is about evidence-based strategies in learning disabilities, particularly reading difficulties. The author describes common evidence-based strategies and interventions to improve cognitive abilities such as corrective reading (direct instructions to teach reading skills), concept mapping (creation of the visual organization in reading texts), use of direct instructions (an approach that breaks down learning into smaller steps), and peer-mediated instructional approaches (variation of instructions to solve problems).

Chapter 17 by Rousseau et al. concerns the use of assistive technologies (AT). The authors present their research in which they analyse the relationship between the use of AT in writing situations and academic self-perception and exam anxiety in French-speaking school students aged 12 to 13 years with dyslexia and dysorthographia. The study was based on the administration of standardized questionnaires and interview protocols. Results confirm the use of AT is associated with benefits in self-perception as well as feelings of self-efficacy.

Chapter 18 by Obafemi examines the use of smartwatch technologies in individuals with learning disorders. Many wearable and computer-based technologies are available such as jewellery, eyewear, or clothing such as shoes and jackets. The author describes a pilot study conducted on Nigerian students to demonstrate how wearable technologies can improve potential, promote equality of educational opportunities, and reduce social barriers.

Chapter 19 by Ali presents a model of a social approach to children with the neurodevelopmental condition known as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which is characterized by motor hyperactivity, impulsivity, limited inhibitory control, and inability to focus, shift, and sustain attention. The author proposes Cassady and Justin's functional model for emotional information processing as a useful tool to observe, explain, and predict human response to different emotional scenarios in a study conducted on ten first-graders with ADHD.

Chapter 20 by Jodra considers educational intervention in ASDs. The author describes the characteristics of ASDs, placing special emphasis on difficulties observed in social skills. The author discusses intervention programs in the socioemotional area in children with ASD on the basis of socioemotional competence assessment instruments. The author also describes strategies for teaching and improving socio-emotional competences in children with these disorders.

Chapter 21 by Sharma et al. is a review of the potential use of stem cell therapy in the treatment of learning disabilities. The authors describe experimental studies conducted on autism, intellectual disability, cerebral palsy, and other neurodevelopmental disorders. They discuss biological bases, ways of administration, and bases of the neuroprotective mechanism of action. They present a study of stem cell transplantation in a population of twenty patients presenting with learning disorders. Results showed an improvement of clinical status in about 95% of patients at follow-up at 26 months.

> **Sandro Misciagna** Neuroscienze Department, Belcolle Hospital, Viterbo, Italy

Section 1
