Meet the editor

Prof. Josphert Ngui Kimatu is an associate professor in the School of Sciences and Computing, Department of Life Science, South Eastern Kenya University. He has a Ph.D. in Plant Molecular Epigenetics from Northeast Normal University (NENU), Changchun City, China, and an MPhil in Forestry Pathology and a bachelor's degree in Botany and Zoology, both from Moi University, Kenya. He also has a Post Graduate Diploma in Education

(PGDE) from Maseno University, Kenya. Dr. Kimatu was trained in post-harvest management in maize, legumes, and rice via a four-module certificate course at Stellenbosch University, South Africa; Sydney University, Australia; and Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana. He also has a certificate in molecular diagnostics from the University of Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kimatu obtained a training certificate in integrated pest management and pesticide safety (IPM) from Soybean Innovation Lab in 2020 and a training certificate on COVID-19 from the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.

Contents

*by Josphert Ngui Kimatu*

Mechanism

*by Istvan Jablonkai*

*and Ali Fuat Gökçe*

under Changing Climate *by Pralhad Jaybhaye*

Using Olive Solid Waste

*by Bharti Thapa and Abhisek Shrestha*

*by Jasmine M. Shah and Joyous T. Joseph*

of Heavy Metal Environmental Pollution

Salt Stress and Plant Molecular Responses

*by Mohammad Hasanuzzaman*

**Preface XI**

**Chapter 1 1**

**Chapter 2 11**

**Chapter 3 33**

**Chapter 4 49**

**Chapter 5 65**

**Chapter 6 87**

**Chapter 7 105**

**Chapter 8 123**

Involvement of Epigenetic Regulation in Plant Defence during Biotic Stress

Introductory Chapter: Inevitable Cytogenetic, Genetic, and Epigenetic Changes Contributing to Phenotypic Plasticity for Plant Defence

Mechanisms in Dynamic Environmental Conditions

Protein Metabolism in Plants to Survive against Abiotic Stress

Salt Stress Tolerance in Rice and Wheat: Physiological and Molecular

Molecular Defense Mechanisms in Plants to Tolerate Toxic Action

Nutrients Deficit and Water Stress in Plants: New Concept Solutions

*by Samir Medhioub, Slah Bouraoui, Ali Ellouze and Hassen Sabeur*

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies of Plants against Hailstorm

*by Usman Khalid Chaudhry, Zahide Neslihan Öztürk Gökçe* 

## Contents



Preface

Studies involving *Arabidopsis thaliana* and other crop plants have continued to advance our knowledge of the mechanisms used by plants to survive in dynamic biotic and abiotic environments. Plants have adapted to diverse ecologies for ages; however, recent human migrations, agricultural activities, and climate change-induced phenomenon have forced plants to increasingly adapt to new environments. Furthermore, agricultural production is becoming progressively more vulnerable to climate variability and change characterized by altered frequency, timing, and magnitude of precipitation, temperature, and wind.

This book focuses on current morphological, anatomical, physiological, molecular, and genomic advances in plant defenses. It discusses advances in plant stress signaling mechanisms and molecular defense responses involving recently discovered biomolecules. It also discusses advances in gene expression changes, which can be inherited as described in epigenetic mechanisms and linked to observed phenotypic plant plasticity. The book also looks at emerging areas like plant growth-promoting microorganisms (PGPMs), which consist in a vast group of microorganisms found in the rhizosphere, on the root surface or associated to it. It examines the mechanisms of action of PGPMs, including their ability to produce different plant growth regulators or phytohormones.

The studies in this book indicate that researchers have found intriguing interactions among plants and their physical, microbial, and biotic environments. These interactions have been highlighted and linked to novel mechanisms, increasing our understanding of how sessile plants adapt and thrive in challenging environments. These studies consider the resilience and sustainability of plant genomes and epigenomes and the role they will

Some of the other topics addressed in this book include the effects of hailstorms, control of secondary damages due to insect pests and diseases, the removal of fallen fruit to reduce the spread of disease and pests during their decay, analysis of wounds on branches and fruit thinning, and the effects of bud-breaking chemicals, bioregulators, and fertilizers on vegetative growth. In general, the major and chronic threats to ecosystem stability and sustainable agriculture are phytopathogenic microorganisms. The unlimited and regular use of chemical pesticides and fungicides can destroy soil ecology, degrade soil fertility, and disrupt the environment, causing harmful effects on human health and contaminating groundwater. However, our studies found that PGPMs are environmentally friendly and offer a promising way of obtaining sustainable soil fertility and plant growth, although indirectly. Nevertheless, antibiotic production is considered one of the most powerful and

**Josphert Ngui Kimatu, BSc., Mphil., PGDE, Ph.D.**

South Eastern Kenya University, School of Sciences and Computing, Department of Life Sciences,

Professor,

Kitui County, Kenya

studied biocontrol mechanisms of PGPMs against phytopathogens.

play in the next generation of food systems.
