*Pulp and peel amino acid contents of black plum harvested in Ferke, Tiebissou and Yamoussoukro compared with the "ideal" amino acid profile of the protein according to the World Health Organisation.*


## *Nutritional and Antioxidant Values of the Black Plum (*Vitex doniana*) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99129*

**Table 3.**

*Mineral composition of pulp and peel of Vitex doniana fruit harvested in Ferke, Tiebissou and Yamoussoukro.*

fruit pulp and peel, which showed no significant difference (p > 0.05), there was more Ca in the Black plum peel than pulp (**Figure 3**). Moreover, Black plum pulp and peel possess remarkably higher Ca contents than stated by Manzoor et al. [52] and Singh et al. ([53] for mango pulp and peel (105 ± 3 and 60 ± 0), banana (52 ± 2 and 55 ± 4 mg/100 g DW) and apple (19.8 ± 0.41–48.9 ± 0.99 and 35.6 ± 0.78–72.1 ± 1.47 mg/100 g DW).

Thus, the consumption of Black plum could contribute to the proper functioning of the body, the constitution of bones and teeth, and the regulation of nerve, muscle and hormonal functions through its high levels of K and Ca [54–58].

Yamoussoukro fruit pulp (46.75 ± 0.92 mg/100 g DW) and Tiebissou peel (42.77 ± 0.57 mg/100 g DW) had the highest levels of Fe. However, no significant variation was observed between fruit pulp and peel from these localities with regards to Zn and Mn contents (**Figure 4**).

Singh et al. [59] analysed important micronutrients in various plants, including mint, coriander, spinach, amaranth, cauliflower and carrot, and found, respectively, Fe, Mn and Zn concentration ranges of 7.7 ± 0.01–84.4 ± 0.08, 1.8 ± 0.01– 10.2 ± 0.05 and 2.4 ± 0.05–6.0 ± 0.04 mg/100 g DW. These data indicate that Yamoussoukro and Tiebissou Black plum pulps and peels are, respectively, richer in Fe than coriander, spinach, amaranth and carrot, while the pulp and peel of Black plum collected in Ferke contains less Fe than all these plants. Given the amounts of Fe in the different parts of Black plum, it is concluded that Black plums could be excellent sources of Fe. This element is an integral part of important enzymatic systems in various tissues, facilitates oxygen transport from red blood cells and to the lungs (as part of haemoglobin) and acts as a carrier for electrons within cells [60, 61]. Variations in the contents of these different minerals in fruit from region to region and from one part of the fruit to another could be explained by maturity of the fruit, fruit conditions, root system, fruiting position and the leaf area of forest cover [62].

## **Figure 4.**

*Comparison between pulp and peel micromineral contents of Vitex doniana fruit harvested in Ferke, Tiebissou and Yamoussoukro.*



## **Table 4.**

*Content of antioxidant compounds in black plum fruit pulp and peel.*

An excess of a mineral can be antagonistic for other minerals absorption and their proper utilisation. For this reason, mineral constituent ratios are important for good nutrition. Our study shows that the Ca amount contained in Black plum pulp and peel is at least twice that of P and K, and at least 40-fold greater than that of Na. The Ca:P ratios of Black plum pulp and peel ranged between 1.8:1–3.8:1 and 2:1–3.8:1, respectively, and the K:Na ratios ranged from 40.28:1–67.35:1 for the pulps and from 30.83:1–56.40:1 for the peels (**Table 3**). It is well known that a Ca:P ratio greater than or equal to 1:1 is favourable for mineralisation and bone turnover [63– 65]. Previous research [63–66] reported that blood pressure reduction was strongly correlated with decreased Na:K ratio and increased K in hypertensive patients. As a result, regular consumption of Black plum could contribute to mineralisation, bone turnover, and the prevention of high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease.

## **3.8 Total phenolic compound and total flavonoid**

The results (**Table 4**) showed that total phenolic compounds (TPC) and total flavonoids (TF) contents, extracted from Black plum pulp and peel, differed considerably (P < 0.05) from one locality to another. This corroborates other results that suggested that TPC content of Black plum in Côte d'Ivoire varied from region to region [19]. Thus, Black plum pulp and peel TPC contents were between 202.51 ± 4.19 and 259.75 ± 2.81 mg GAE/100 g DW and 225.84 ± 5.89 and 463.45 ± 6.85 mg GAE/100 g DW, respectively. The pulp and peel of fruit collected in Yamoussoukro exhibited the highest levels of TPC (259.75 ± 2.81 and 463.45 ± 6.85 mg GAE/100 g DW, respectively), while the lowest TPC levels occurred in those from Tiébissou and Ferke (202.51 ± 4.19) and 225.84 ± 5.89 mg GAE/100 g DW, respectively (**Table 4**). In addition, except for Ferke fruit pulp and peel, which showed no significant difference (p > 0.05), there were higher concentration of TPC in the Black plum peel than in pulp (**Table 4**). This result is consistent with results obtained by several authors [67–69] whose reported a higher phenolic compound content in fruit peel such as orange, grape and mango. For TF levels, significant variation was observed (P < 0.05) between samples (**Table 4**). The TF of Black plum pulp and peel ranged from 75.71 ± 1.03–145.55 ± 1.03 mg QE/100 g DW. The highest amounts of TF were also found in peel (**Table 4**). Tiébissou peel (145.55 ± 1.03 mg QE/100 g DW) and Ferke pulp (79.43 ± 1.13 mg QE/100 g DW) showed high TF content. Those results agree well with results reported by Levaj et al. [70] and Reza et al. [71]. **Table 4** shows that the TF content of Black plum pulp and peel represent 34% and 38% of TPC, respectively. In this study, the fruit pulp and peel TF/TPC ratios are higher than those of carrot (0.28), tomato (0.17) and red pepper (0.08) and similar to okra (0.32) for the pulp [72]. In addition, these ratios are also higher than those of nine varieties of grenadine (0.114–0.288) for peel [71].

## **4. Conclusion**

Black plum pulps and peels collected in Ferke, Tiebissou and Yamoussoukro (Côte d'Ivoire) areas were characterised by high contents of dietary fibre (34.79– 50.21%) and minerals, including K (2415.01 and 2138.83%), P (147.66 and 124.83%) and Ca (314.33 and 377.37%), besides displaying a good essential amino acids profile (threonine, leucine, isoleucine) of the protein, compared to kiwi, fruit reference rich in ash and polyphenols. However, the fruit peels are the parts rich in dietary fibre, Ca, total polyphenols and total flavonoids. Thus, these fruits constitute a good source of important nutrients (fibre, potassium, calcium and phosphorus)

*Nutritional and Antioxidant Values of the Black Plum (*Vitex doniana*) DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99129*

and compounds (antioxidants) beneficial for health. It is recommended that both parts of this fruit (pulp and peel) are consumed. Therefore, we propose that these fruit parts are integrated into the human diet in order to contribute to good health. Furthermore, incorporation of the fruit parts in some foods (like flour of wheat, maize, millet, etc.,…) could be of great interest in the valorization of this species. Especially this incorporation would allow the fight against malnutrition in rural areas where food is less rich in minerals and polyphenols.

## **Acknowledgements**

We thank the Food Products Quality and Safety Laboratory of University of Liege – Gembloux AgroBioTech, especially the laboratory technicians and Dr. Touré Yétioman.

## **Author details**

Koba Fatou Traore1 \*, Kisselmina Youssouf Kone1 , Amédée Pascal Ahi2 , Doudjo Soro1 , Nogbou Emmanuel Assidjo1 and Marianne Sindic3

1 Institut National Polytechnique Houphouët Boigny, Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire

2 Université Nanui Abrogoua, Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire

3 Laboratory of Quality and Safety of Agro-Food Products, TERRA, Gembloux AgroBio-Tech, Liege University, Gembloux, Belgium

\*Address all correspondence to: fatyroxane@yahoo.fr

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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## **Chapter 10**
