**5.2 Preventive measures**

Infestation can be entirely prevented when some precautionary measures should be taken such as when harvesting crops should be as soon as ripe, dry, and then placed in clean, and hygienic deep bins for long storage. Newly harvested small grains are very much susceptible to infestation if stored unthrashed for longer times. Fresh and clean grains should never be stored in uncleaned, old bins and granaries containing waste grains, until they have been thoroughly cleaned, freed from the

accumulation of waste materials and other substances harboring grain pests. The best storage places are solid, steel, concrete bins or containers for infestation-free and for longer storage. Traveling bags, bags used for transportation of grains, and any other products should be kept far away from the places where grains are stored.

#### **5.3 Traditional practices**

From time-to-time man has continuously developed various conventional methods to protect stored food grains from insect damage. Use of bamboo, wooden plank, straw, mud, bricks, cow dung, leaves of many plants, etc. is used by farmers to protect the quality as well as the number of stored foods until for further consumption [25]. One of the most common methods used by farmers was the use of plant parts or plant extracts as natural insecticides and repellents. During the 1850s, plants such as *Nicotiana tabacum*, *Derris elliptica*, *Lonchocarpus* spp., *Juglans regia*, *Azadirachta indica*, and *Chrysanthemum cineraria* folium was used for the plant extracts such as nicotine, derris dust, rotenone, Juglans, Azadirachtin, and pyrethrum respectively for controlling pests naturally [26]. The discovery of DDT by Paul Muller marked the advent of a new synthetic pesticide era since 1939.

#### **5.4 Organic approach**

The list of all usable, as well as prohibited controlling methods, are permissible in the national organic program (NOP). All the generic materials are enlisted under the national list of allowed and prohibited substances (NLAPS). It is mentioned in this that organic control should be the top priority, although synthetic insecticides can also be used upon specific approval. Certification to every producer, controller, processor, and handler is mandatory for authorized permissible processes. To reduce the infestation of stored grain pests, we should not make ourselves victims of pesticides. For this wearing the appropriate protective clothing and equipment during pest control to avoid contact to eyes, lungs, skin, and nose. Some control materials allowed in organic stored grains are:

*Bacillus thuringiensis:* This bacterium is used to control and prevent pests especially the larvae of Indian-meal moth. *B. thuringiensis* damages the digestive tract of caterpillars and lastly kills them.

*Pyrethrum:* Botanicals based on pyrethrin obtained from the flowers of *Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium* are primarily an insecticide that penetrates rapidly inside insect coverings, especially moths and larvae [27]. Empty containers should be treated before they are filled with grains for best results. Pyrethrum is an insecticide that is now universally accepted and is used to reduce pest damage in both tropical and temperate climatic conditions [28].

*Diatomaceous earth:* Aquatic organisms commonly referred to as diatoms have their skeletal system made of silica. The fossilized forms, having sharp edges of these diatoms are commonly referred to as diatomaceous earth. The sharp edges of diatomaceous earth can cut the pest's cuticle, resulting in death by injury and dehydration.

*Grain surface protectant:* Cleanliness is an essential factor to lower the damage rate. Containers and bins are filled only to the height of sidewalls, floors, and ceilings, and then cleaned through the fan system. Topdressing or simply capping the stored grains will act as a protective barrier from migrating insects into the bin.

*Grain rescue:* Infested grains should be treated initially with some treatments such as appropriate cooling and warming before being used for food to humans or any other animal.

*Detech and methyl eugenol:* These are promising treatments for the control of stored grain pests such as *S. granarius*, *S. zeamais*, (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), *Rhyzopertha dominica* (Coleoptera: Bostrychidae), *Tribolium confusum* (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). ME is a benzene-derived component, potential, and effective plant-derived synthetic chemical insecticide, and has a high knockdown effect because of the presence of more methoxy groups in it [29]. A synergistic effect of the combination of Diatomaceous Earth and Methyl Eugenol on *R. dominica*, *T. confusum*, *S granaries*, and *S. zeamais* has been reported by Erturk in 2021) [30].
