**10. Conclusions**

The treacherous *E. coli* resistance rates in recent years created a very complicated therapeutic challenge that threatens to return clinicians and patients to a "pre-antibiotic era". Clinicians must be alert to the possibility of nitrofurantoin, fosfomycin, and colistin resistance among MDR and XDR bacteria. Finally, vaccines and probiotics, CRISPR-Cas systems, and phage therapy may be the means to combat AMR of *E. coli*.
