**5. Roles of minerals in health**

Clinical signs of mineral deficiencies in animals gave a good indication of the mineral status. Alopecia, parakeratosis, hair discoloration, weakness, and fertility were the major clinical signs at the different locations. In this study, Zn deficiency symptoms reported by Pallauf and Kirchgessner [156]; Kirchgessner et al. [60, 61], and Schhwarz and Kirchgessner [157], were low growth, weight loss, alopecia, and severs parakeratosis. Idris et al. [1] observed that clinical signs of Cu deficiency were anemia, stunted growth, hair discoloration, infertility, and diarrhea. Impaired growth and poor reproductive performance were the most significant features of Mn deficiency in ruminants [22, 54, 56].

All the diseases recorded in the farm health records were reported. Type of veterinary health care, cow calendar, vaccination program, and clinical signs of mineral deficiencies for each survey were also reported. Repeat breeder's percent, average calving interval, average conception rate, percent and age of delayed puberty heifers, and average milk yield for each survey were reported. As stated by Underwood (1983), changes in an animal's appearance or level of production can often be early identification of diet inadequacy. Severe or acute deficiencies of minerals are often characterized by specific clinical signs, but disorders are often mild or marginal, expressed only as vague unthriftiness, or suboptimal growth, fertility, or productivity. These changes are often non-specific and indistinguishable from those resulting from inadequate energy, protein, or vitamins, or from parasitism, or toxic plants. Therefore, it often becomes necessary to resort to chemical analysis in order to adequately determine mineral insufficiencies (Underwood, 1983).

In fact, approximately 5% of the bodyweight of an animal consists of minerals. Investigations have shown that ruminant livestock may deteriorate and fail to achieve a responsible level of productivity because of deficiencies and excesses of minerals in soils and plants. Furthermore, such deficiencies or excesses may not only result in low production but may give rise to problems of reproduction and to clinical signs indicating minerals deficiencies usually encountered worldwide, such as wasting diseases, loss of hair, depigmented hair, skin disorders, non-infectious abortion, diarrhea, anemia, loss of appetite, bone abnormalities, tetany, low fertility and pica [6, 7].

A dietary deficiency of either Ca or P is sufficiently prolonged, however, results in skeletal abnormalities, subnormal growth, depraved appetite, rickets, and

*The Interactions of Some Minerals Elements in Health and Reproductive Performance of Dairy… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101626*

osteomalacia [23]. Uncomplicated Ca deficiency symptoms included hemorrhages and delayed coagulation of the blood (Martin, 1937; [13]). P deficiency in dairy cows resulted in a reduction in milk yield, loss of condition, depraved appetite, and temporary sterility [23, 158].

Zinc deficiency symptoms reported by Pallauf and Kirchgessner [156], Kirchgessner et al. [60, 61], and [157] were anorexia, low growth, weight loss, alopecia, severe parakeratosis, and epidermoid lesions [159, 160]. Apart from parakeratosis, the most characteristic consequence of Zn deficiency is the abnormal ossification of the skeleton, whereas poor ossification has been found in rats and growing pigs [161].

Copper deficiency causes, anemia, stunted growth, bone deformation, change in hair color, infertility, diarrhea, enzootic ataxia or swayback in sheep, or fatting disease in cattle [1]. Mo-deficiency in cattle is characterized by intense diarrhea, and a change in coat color.

Mg deficiency is uncommon [162, 163]. The early and moderate symptoms of Mg deficiency include loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, tingling or numbness, rapid heartbeat, delirium, hallucinations, retention of sodium, low circulating levels of parathyroid hormone, and weakness [164–166].

The effect of cobalt deficiency in cattle and sheep are those of vitamin B12 deficiency and range from a mild deficiency with an ill-defined and transient thriftless with no clear clinical signs to moderate or severe deficiency with appetite failure, emaciation, and listlessness accompanied by characteristic pallor of the skin and mucous membranes caused by progressively increasing anemia [28] (ARC, 1989).

Impaired growth, development of skeletal abnormalities, poor reproductive performance, and ataxia of the newborn are the most significant features of manganese deficiency in ruminants [54, 56] (ARC 1989). Low Mn levels in the body (Mn deficiency) have been linked to hypercholesterolemia, impaired glucose tolerance, dermatitis, hair color changes, skeletal abnormalities, infertility, deafness, and impaired synthesis of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors [167–169].

Iron (Fe) is necessary for growth, development, normal cellular functioning, and synthesis of some hormones and connective tissue [72, 75]. In the case that the body supply of available Fe is too low, this led to a condition known as Fe deficiency. Fe deficiency causes an inadequate amount of hemoglobin to meet body's oxygen transport needs. When the deficiency becomes severe, the condition is diagnosed as Fe-deficiency anemia [170, 171]. The most common symptoms of Fe-deficiency anemia are tiredness and weakness due to the inadequate oxygen supply to the body's cells and paleness due to the decreased levels of oxygenated hemoglobin. The other symptoms include fatigue, dizziness, hair loss, twitches, irritability, impaired immune function, pagophagia, and restless legs syndrome [170, 172, 173].

## **6. Roles of minerals in reproductive performance**

Minerals are required in reproductive processes because of their role in maintenance, metabolism, and growth [174]. Requirements for minerals are influenced by several factors that include age, stage of pregnancy, and stage of lactation [175]. Apart from energy and protein, mineral deficiencies such as calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, and copper have been reported to be a risk factor for placental retention [18], repeat breeding in dairy cows [176] (Kumar, 2014), abortion [177], and weak calf syndrome [177, 178]. Minerals are divided into two categories based on their requirements: macro minerals, which require more than 100 ppm in the diet and include calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sulfur, sodium, and chloride; and micro minerals, which require less than 100 ppm in the diet and include

calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, sulfur, sodium, and chloride. Trace or micro minerals, such as cobalt, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, selenium, and zinc, fall into this category and are required in amounts of less than 100 ppm in the diet [18].

Mineral deficiency has also been strongly associated with decreased reproductive performance in dairy cows. Inactive ovaries (anaestious) delayed sexual maturity and low conception rates have been reported when phosphorus intakes are low. Other minerals such as copper, manganese, and cobalt deficiencies have been associated with impaired ovarian function, silent anestrous and abortions.

Dekruif [179] illustrated that for optimal reproductive performance, cows must conceive within 80–85 days of calving. Ward et al. [180] illustrated that the calving interval is the best index for monitoring herd reproductive status. The calving interval is 477–523 days. Chantaraprateep and Humbert [181] reported that a report breeder cow is a cow that inseminated more than three times and is still not pregnant.

For cattle, the female age at puberty are 6–10 months, the usual age at first service is 14–22 month, the length of the oestrus cycle is 21 days, the oestrus cycle type is polyestrous, the duration of oestrus is 18 hours, the gestation length is 280 days, and the first postpartum oestrus used for breeding is first after 42 days [182].

Many factors influence the amount of time between parturition and first oestrus in tropical cattle, including endocrine events, management, nutrition, heat and humidity, genetic-environmental interactions, illnesses, and internal and external parasites. Nutritional factors that result in reduced hemoglobin level (trace minerals deficiencies, and parasites infestation) also cause prolonged postpartum anoestrus and infertility [183].

Calving interval is taken as the best index for monitoring herd reproductive status [180]. According to chantaraprateep and Humbert [181], a repeat breeder cow is a cow that is inseminated more than three times and still not pregnant. The normal gestation length is 280 days [182], and a cow with good reproductive performance would conceive within 80–85 days after calving [179]. For Zebu cattle, age at puberty, first oestrus, and first calving were found to be 858, 930, and 1185 days respectively [184, 185]. McDowell (1968) stated that the calving to oestrus was 56 days. McDowell (1972) found that the incidence of anoestrus was only 13% at 80 days postpartum intervals can be attained even in a hot climate.

Progesterone concentrations in the plasma of recently calved cows and delayed puberty heifers were low. According to Sijiu and Beixeng [186], before the first oestrus, plasma progesterone concentrations were 3.9 ± 0.3 nmol/L, and reached 16.6 ± 3.2 nmol/L on day 15 of the cycle. Eduvie et al. [187] stated that a progesterone concentration of 1.59 nmol/L was taken as indicative of attainment of puberty. According to Hansel and Alila [183], the length of the period from parturition to first oestrus varies greatly in cattle in the tropics and is influenced by many factors including, endocrine events, management, nutrition, heat and humidity, geneticenvironment interacting, diseases, and external parasites, similarly interval from calving to first oestrus and subsequent pregnancy rare are influenced by prepartum and postpartum nutrition [188–190], sucking status [191, 192].

The major causes of non-infectious infertility in dairy animals are due to energy, protein, and mineral deficiencies mainly of calcium, phosphorus, trace minerals (copper, cobalt, zinc, iodine, and manganese), and other salts [193]. The mean blood zinc levels were higher (p < 0.05) in anestrus than in subestrus and/or repeat breeding cows and buffaloes. Further, the plasma phosphorus, copper, and cobalt concentrations were found to be non-significantly higher in repeat breeders than in anestrus or subestrus cows and buffaloes were deficient in some animals indicating its role in causing infertility in dairy animals.

*The Interactions of Some Minerals Elements in Health and Reproductive Performance of Dairy… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101626*

The plasma levels of phosphorus were found to be non-significantly higher in repeat breeders than in the anestrus or subestrus cattle. Among trace minerals, plasma zinc levels were lower, while copper and cobalt levels were higher in repeat breeder cattle as compared to anestrus or subestrus ones [194]. Kumar et al. [195] and Butani et al. [196].

The mean of studied essential trace minerals in retained placenta (RP) revealed a decline in Zn2+, Cu2+, and total iron (TF) by 68.9%, 65.7%, and 19.4% respectively. Additionally, all studied minerals exhibited a significant reduction in both nonretained placenta (NRP), and RP groups compared to heifers (HEF) group. Also, it was reported that buffaloes with RP are significantly deficient in Zn2+ which has an important role in preserving the uterus following parturition as it helps in the healing process and immune system during the convalescent stage [197]. TF in the case of RP was lower than NRP which attributed to Cu2+ reductions as required for the biosynthesis of hemoglobin.

The mineral profile of anestrus cattle results showed that the mean Copper (ppm) for anestrus island cattle was 0.04 ± 0.005 and for coastal cattle was 0.02 ± 0.004. The mean Manganese (ppm) values recorded were 0.031 ± 0.007 in the case of island cattle and 0.024 ± 0.003 for coastal cattle. The mean Zinc (ppm) value in the case of the island and coastal cattle was 0.33 ± 0.11 and 0.33 ± 0.07 respectively. Statistical analysis of the data revealed that there was no significant difference in the values of Copper, Manganese, and Zinc between the cattle of both coastal and island ecosystems.

The mineral profiles of repeat breeder cattle depicted the mean Copper (ppm) for repeat breeder island cattle was 0.05 ± 0.006 and for coastal cattle was 0.03 ± 0.005. The mean Manganese (ppm) values recorded were 0.023 ± 0.005 in the case of island cattle and 0.021 ± 0.004 for coastal cattle. The mean Zinc (ppm) value in the case of the island and coastal cattle was 0.33 ± 0.12 and 0.32 ± 0.09 respectively.

The level of P in cattle of island ecosystem was found to be 3.54 mg/dl, whereas, in coastal ecosystem, the values were 3.60 mg/dl. The present value of P corroborates the finding of Ramakrishna [198].

The serum concentration of zinc (0.32 to 0.33 ppm) was against a normal range of 0.8–1.2 ppm which speaks of a mild deficiency of zinc in the animals. Comparable values have been reported by Sahoo et al. [199]. The serum levels of copper were well within the physiological range (0.7–1.5 ppm) indicating a normal copper level. The observation found the support of Sahoo et al. [199]. The serum manganese during the present study was slightly below the normal range of 0.4–0.8 ppm. A comparable range of manganese levels had been reported by Sahoo et al. [199]. However, lower values had also been reported by Modi et al. [200].

One of the primary constraints limiting livestock production is inadequate nutritional resources on a year-round basis [201]. Many reports reviewed the beneficial effects of mineral supplementation on reproductive performance among animals [143]. Mineral deficiencies in soils and forges have been responsible for low production and reproduction problems among grazing tropical cattle [2]. Molybdenuminduced interference in luteinizing hormone (LH) that delays puberty in heifers is caused by a disruption in ovarian steroid secretion [202].

Zinc importance in spermatogenesis coupled with its synergic role in uptake by spermatozoa of vitamin A, particularly as vitamin A plays an essential role in the attainment of puberty and the maintenance of both libido and integrity of testicular germinate epithelium (Hurley and Doanc, 1989). Master and Moir [203] showed that ewes given a Zn diet (4 mg/kg) produced lambs that were 17% lighter at birth than those receiving an adequate Zn diet (50 mg/kg).

Macpherson et al. [29] showed that the increase in calving rate to the first insemination in dairy heifers is by correcting a selenium deficiency before mating. Mohammed et al. [204] reviewed that cows with blood selenium concentration > 169 ng/ml had twice the risk of developing cystic ovaries than cows with levels <108 ng/ml. Tasker et al. [205] reported that Se supplementation improves the conception rate. Deficiencies of specific minerals such as Ca, P, Cu, Fe, and I may cause post-pactum anoestrus [206] (Surendra Singh and Vadnere, 1987).

The animals showed general weakness, parakeratosis, achromotrichia, and infertility [207]. Suttle [208] reported that the economic importance of Cu deficiencies has been emphasized by the discovery of unsuspected cases of loss, increased susceptibility to cattle. Ingraham et al. [209] illustrated that Cu and Mg supplementation improves the conception rate. Lavin et al. [210] showed that plasma Cu values decreased with advancing gestation, and increased after calving, and were lowest in cows returning repeatedly to service. Dhoble and Gupta [211] discussed the role of Ca and P low values in postpartum anoestrus. Fisher and Macpherson [212] reported that cobalt treatment had a significant effect on ewe serum vitamin B12 andmethy1-malonic acid concentration. Cobalt deficient ewes produced fewer lambs and had more stillbirth and newborn mortalities than cobalt sufficient controls.
