*3.2.1 Limitations at the operational level*

The likelihood of implementing a participatory development approach (PDA) has been hindered by factors that are related to operational procedures of the task. These hindrances include: centralization of public administration of ecotourism development, lack of co-ordination between involved parties, and poor dissemination of information to communities residing adjacent to ecotourism sites [14, 52]. Centralization of power to government agencies and privately-owned PAs' authorities restricts the influence of community-level groups during planning and implementation processes. It stifles local community participation thereby adopting a 'top-downoriented' planning and implementation system. Lacking both co-ordination and co-operation between stakeholders may impact negatively on the quality of ecotourism product and impede effective implementation of participatory ecotourism development approach. It may also hinder potential opportunities for locals to participate in development processes affecting ecotourism sites adjacent to their communities. Inadequate ecotourism data resulting from inequitable dissemination of the available information could result into naivety amongst local communities regarding their role and responsibility in ecotourism development processes. It is therefore, important that all stakeholders including local communities are well informed about resources necessitating sustainable ecotourism development.

## *3.2.2 Structural limitations*

Structural limitations are believed to have been stifling the emergence and implementation of participatory approach to ecotourism development. These

limitations include: attitudes of professionals toward local communities, lack of expertise from politically deployed officials, elite dominance, lacking appropriate legal system, lacking trained human resources, relatively high costs of community participation, and lacking financial resources. Despite playing an important role in formulation of ecotourism policies especially in developing countries, it is apparent that negative attitude displayed by technocrats toward local communities may hinder the emergence and implementation of participatory approach to ecotourism development. Prioritization of local communities' involvement during policy-making processes remains essential for development and sustainability of ecotourism activities. In circumstances whereby responsible bodies lack expertise necessitating sustainable ecotourism development, it is fundamental that all stakeholders are guaranteed an opportunity to be trained on necessary skills and expertise. Tosun [14]; Nyaupane et al. [52] argue cogently that ecotourism development has been merely interpreted as ecotourism growth characterized by improved infrastructure. In essence, these elements do not suffice appropriate ecotourism development, and can therefore, be referred to as myopic ecotourism development approach. The authors suggest that these limitations can be addressed by considering a holistic approach rather than arriving at particular conclusions based on partial considerations which may disregard local community participation as an important contributor toward sustainable ecotourism development. In many parts of world, democratic benefits had been solely enjoyed by certain entrepreneurs and state elites. Equally, ecotourism development processes have been spearheaded by particular local elites in collaboration with international tourism operators. As a consequence, participatory ecotourism development approach has not been adhered to as numerous local communities had been deprived an opportunity to participate in local and national affairs [14, 52].

Local people, especially youths and entrepreneurs should benefit from ecotourism activities through capacity building and multiplier effect. Legal systems adopted by many developing countries do not allow local people a free role to take control of their own affairs. Instead, they exacerbate a participatory gap existing between the masses and authorities. A typical example is India, where community participatory attempts by the state agencies had become futile resulting from a legal system that has been bias toward authorities and against ordinary citizens [14, 52]. Lacking necessary qualifications by most human resources within the tourism sector had prompted importation of skills from foreign countries. This meant that the majority of local people had to occupy low status positions associated with hard labour and meager remunerations. As a result, local people are deprived of participating in planning and decision-making processes regarding ecotourism development as this prerogative has been enjoyed exclusively by foreign employees who occupy top positions. As highlighted in the preceding text, the sector should invest in local people by equipping them with skills necessary for ecotourism development through establishment of capacity building initiatives. In general, local community participation requires sufficient time and financial resources, and necessary skills to sustain. However, in most instances public sector bodies tend to be reluctant to spend colossal amounts of money on facilitating community participation initiatives whose benefits seem to take forever to be realized. Tosun [14]; Nyaupane et al. [52] maintain that high financial costs involved in participatory ecotourism development process had been a main impediment to launching participatory ecotourism development programmes in many parts of the world. Launching ecotourism activities within local communities may require colossal financial resources to be allocated to tourist infrastructural facilities. These facilities need to bear a resemblance to Western standards irrespective of a tourist destination's financial landscape. Financial resources required for ecotourism development are generally scarce, especially in developing

countries. The scarcity of financial resources may hinder execution of participatory ecotourism development both in developing countries and relatively underdeveloped regions of developed countries [14, 52].
