**3. Results and discussion**

## **3.1 Shocks emanating from climate change at the Mahenye community ecotourism project**

The shocks emanating from climate change at the Mahenye community ecotourism project were found to be a shortage of water and forage for the wild animals during drought years, flood-induced damage of buildings and roads due to increased occurrence and severity of tropical cyclones, reduced bioclimatic comfort due to temperature rises and increased theft of flora and fauna due to climate change-related socio-economic deprivation.

#### *3.1.1 Shortage of water and forage for the wild animals during drought years*

Climate change has resulted in increased incidences of drought leading to shortages of water and forage for the wild animals at Mahenye. According to Key Informant 4 drought negatively impact the survival of wild animals and vegetation upon which community ecotourism relies on. This is worsened by the challenges encountered in pumping underground water for the wild animals such as fuel shortages and poorly serviced pumps due to failure to acquire spare parts as noted by Key Informant 1. Key Informant 3 also noted that the trophy hunting quotas were not achieved during drought years due to wild animal decimation resulting in lower revenues accruing to communities, for example, from trophy elephants. Further, Expert 1 noted that due to drought-induced nutritional shortages some wild animals in southeastern Zimbabwe were wasting away in terms of appearance for most of the year thereby reducing their esthetic value for ecotourists.

Other studies have also noted the negative effect of increasing drought incidences on vegetation production and wildlife populations in tropical savanna ecosystems [28–32]. Increasing drought incidences also have potentially adverse impacts on ecosystem integrity as wild animals concentrate on dwindling perennial watering points triggering erosion and siltation [33]. Further, drought conditions and aridification have altered the migratory patterns of game in the Kgalagai Transfrontier Park in Southern Africa and the Etosha National Park in Namibia as animals have to travel considerably further between wetland and dryland grazing areas [34]. As Namibian tourism is heavily reliant on game viewing and trophy hunting, such migratory behavior has negative impacts on the industry [34]. However, some rangers argue that low forage during drought years allows ecotourists to view game animals with ease [12].

#### *3.1.2 Flood-induced damage of buildings and roads*

Climate change has resulted in increased occurrence and severity of tropical cyclone events leading to heavy rainfall downpours and flood-induced damage of buildings and roads at Mahenye. Key Informant 5 noted that the Mahenye Safari Lodge, which is located on Gayiseni Island in the middle of the Save River, has not been operating since 2008 as it was extensively damaged by flooding after a cyclone hit the area leaving only Chilo Lodge operating. Six (6) key informants also attributed the poor state of the roads in the study area to the damage caused by heavy rainfall downpours. Observations also showed that the gravel road linking Mahenye to the main Birchenough Bridge-Chiredzi- Ngundu Highway has been badly damaged in some sections partly due to heavy downpours that have been exacerbated by poor maintenance. Further, some sections of the highways linking Mahenye to major cities such as Harare and Bulawayo and other touristic centers such as Victoria Falls, Kariba, Nyanga, and Great Zimbabwe were damaged by heavy rainfall experienced during the 2020–2021 crop growing season. This makes driving difficult and a risk for ecotourists visiting Mahenye on their travel itineraries. This has the potential to negatively impact the attractiveness, marketability, and income streams of the Mahenye community ecotourism.

Climate change-induced flooding has also damaged ecotourism infrastructure in Botswana [35], South Africa [12, 36, 37], and Nigeria [38]. Darkoh et al. [35] noted that climate change-induced floods resulted in the complete isolation of the Moremi Game Reserve in the Okavango Delta, Botswana thereby leading to business losses and retrenchment of tourism employees. Other researches in the Okavango Delta of Botswana have also shown that climate change-induced flooding has the potential to result in crocodiles and hippopotamus moving into human-populated areas and increase the prevalence of malaria and cholera [35, 39, 40]. However, high rainfall totals associated with tropical cyclone events can boost primary production thereby making more forage available for some wild animals such as grazers like zebra and wildebeest.

#### *3.1.3 Reduced bioclimatic comfort due to temperature rises*

Temperature rises at Mahenye have resulted in reduced bioclimatic comfort for ecotourists. According to Expert 1 incidences of heatwaves are increasing across Zimbabwe including Mahenye in the southeast lowveld. Further, extremely high temperatures often lead to violent summer thunderstorms in the tropical savannas. These temperature rises are associated with an increase in greenhouse gases. Key Informant 5 noted that ecotourists at Mahenye have experienced thermal discomfort during incidences of heatwaves in 2016 and 2019. Thermal discomfort results in ecotourists not feeling relaxed and satisfied. Key Informant 1 also noted that the increase in extremely hot days in southeast Zimbabwe including Mahenye has made it difficult to conduct some of the slotted afternoon game drives during some summer months as wild animals would be hiding under bushes to avoid the intense heat and ecotourists would not be eager to do outside activities due to fear of sunburn.

Temperature rises have also negatively affected the hospitality industry in other touristic areas in Zimbabwe such as Victoria Falls [10] and Hwange National Park [41]. Similarly, other studies have shown the negative impacts of temperature rises on bioclimatic comfort in the Okavango Delta, Botswana [11], Namibia [34], Lesotho, Swaziland and Zambia [42], Kruger National Park, South Africa which is also part of the GLTFCA [12] and Nigeria [38]. Further, the temperature rises at a time when rainfall totals are decreasing have potential to result in quick grass vegetation loss in tropical savanna touristic landscapes of the GLTFCA [12]. This

*Towards Sustainable Community Conservation in Tropical Savanna Landscapes… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101589*

is so as persistent droughts reduce the grass fuel load for natural wildfires that are essential for the growth of fresh grass vegetation and curbing bush encroachment [12]. Furthermore, due to increased temperature and diminishing rainfall, the sour veld was reportedly translocating nutrients to the roots faster. This potentially negatively affects the health of grazing animals such as the buffalo and rhinoceros in the GLTFCA [12]. However, the influence of high temperatures on tourists' discomfort is often relative to the perceived temperatures of a destination [43]. Further, temperature rises can potentially attract adventure and extreme sport tourism as some people are either keen to conquer or watch athletes competing in the blistering heat.

### *3.1.4 Increased theft of flora and fauna due to climate change-related socio-economic deprivation*

Climate change-related socio-economic deprivation is resulting in increased theft of flora and fauna at the Mahenye community ecotourism project. Key Informant 5 and Key Informant 6 noted that Mahenye is facing climate changerelated issues such as increased poaching of wild animals and timber during drought years. Drought and flooding events associated with climate change have led to increased food insecurity and poverty, leading to the Mahenye community relying more on natural resources. This poses a heightened threat to biodiversity as communities engage in illegal hunting for bushmeat and tree cutting for wood fuel. Cases of human-wildlife conflicts also increase as communities go out into the wilderness in search of natural resources. Other studies have also noted food shortages and poverty as the drivers of illegal hunting in Zimbabwe [44, 45] and Tanzania [46].

### **3.2 Adaptations to make the ecotourism model at Mahenye more resilient in the face of shocks emanating from climate change**

Adaptations to make the ecotourism model at Mahenye more resilient in the face of climate change include promoting climate change compatible ecotourism development and applying as well as lobbying for funds to mitigate climate change effects from international conservation agencies. Climate-proof ecotourism can be achieved by pumping underground water to ensure sufficient water for the wild animals during drought years and constructing climate-smart buildings and roads. Broadening sustainable livelihood options is also another way of mitigating climate change-induced deprivation. Expert 1 noted other livelihood options that can be promoted at Mahenye as sustainable beekeeping, fisheries, selling of traditional wild foods and beverages, crafts, oils, and natural healthcare products. Therefore, resources need to be channeled towards the diversification of livelihood options and community empowerment. This can be kick-started by creating a Livelihood Diversification Fund using proceeds from ecotourism.

Further, adaptations may include the forging of partnerships between Mahenye community ecotourism project and universities to undertake research on climate change mitigation and developing strategies that will ensure sufficient water and forage for the wild animals so important to ecotourism during periods of extreme climatic events. The research can also explore the development of other options for ecotourists in case wildlife declines due to climate change. Climate change mitigation research can also integrate indigenous knowledge systems with modern scientific climate know-how taking advantage of Mahenye community's strong adherence to traditional customs. The utility of local ecological knowledge in adapting and coping with climate change has been shown by some research in the Middle Zambezi Biosphere Reserve [47].

The other adaptation strategies to drought include rainwater collecting [48], rainwater rituals and prayers, and seeking drought relief from external agencies [49]. Consumption adjustment strategies such as turning to drought-resistant traditional foods are another way of adapting to drought. At Mahenye the community can turn to the *hoka* meal. *Hoka* is a drought-resistant long grass with seeds that are soaked, dried, and then ground into a meal. Further, to adapt to climate change in the most advantageous way Németh [50] suggests policymakers should increase local power over resources through the devolution of authority over natural property to grassroots structures at the sub-district level, ensure fair ecotourism benefit distribution, safeguard the inevitable livelihood transition and channel financial capital into reducing vulnerability.

Further, adaptation strategies to temperature rises that have resulted in reduced bioclimatic comfort for ecotourists include constructing more swimming pools and shaded areas as well as planting more trees. In addition, the bioclimatic comfort of ecotourists during periods of intense heat can be improved by providing a greater number of air conditioners and ensuring that cool drinks and refreshments are always available. These adaptation strategies were being implemented in Botswana [51, 52]. Ecotourism businesses in Botswana had also readjusted the timing of game drives and walking trails to cooler times of the day to ensure that human comfort levels are maintained [52]. The readjustment of the timing of outdoor ecotourist activities to ensure human bioclimatic comfort has also been suggested for the Kruger National Park in South Africa [12].
