**3. Measures to protect community forests of Meghalaya**

Forests play a major role in the sustenance of well-being in humans as they provide services such as water purification, provision of oxygen, and spiritual and cultural benefits. Thus, forests and forest resources prove to be not only a source of income but also are an important source of food, freshwater, medicines, firewood and materials for construction. It has been reported that many indigenous communities, forest biodiversity is fundamental to their culture and identity [75]. This dependence on forests and forest resources has led the communities residing in close proximities to forest areas to understand the need for conservation and sustainable use of resources [14]. These forests known as community forests are managed and controlled either by the clans, individuals, groups or traditional institutions according to the prevailing customary laws and practices [14]. The sacred groves which is the most famous amongst the community forests has been regarded as one of the best means for ecosystem conservation. This is due to the fact that it possesses higher species diversity as compared to its surrounding areas [76]. This class of community forest houses many rare, threatened and economically important species [69]. Khiewtam and Ramakrishnan [77] stated that due to human activities much of the vegetation are disturbed and it is only in these sacred forests that thick vegetation is prevalent. Human activities comprising of agricultural activities namely clearing of native vegetation, grazing of livestock, logging and construction has led to the alteration of vast areas on earth. These activities have had intense bearings not only on biodiversity but have also affected significant ecosystem processes such as pollination and nutrient cycling, habitat loss eventually leading to habitat fragmentation [78].

The common strategies adopted by most forest management institutions are penalty which could be monetary or nonmonetary like confiscation of equipment or fines in other forms strictly governed by customary practices of the respective community. Conflicts, whether intra–village or inter–village or inter–community are resolved by institutional mechanisms. Intervention of government agencies, in particular the Forest Department is sought when matters are not settled at the community level [79]. Thus, such collective efforts have contributed to the conservation of forest resources of the country. The establishment

of Conservation and Community reserves has led the Govt. of Meghalaya vide Section 36 C of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 to declare 64 private and community lands/forests as Community Reserves. These reserves are not located within a National Park or Wildlife Sanctuary and are focused mainly on the preservation and protection of flora, fauna and traditional or cultural conservation values and practices. It is also believed that these will provide a safe habitat for the animals inhabiting such areas [80]. The concept of Conservation- and Community- reserves is although new yet it is believed to contribute to conservation of biodiversity.

The World Conservation Union in the year 1999 reported that in spite of forests being protected, yet they continue to be under the pressures of human activities and conservation is not ensured even if it involves legal designations. Further, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) reported that many protected areas lack institutional infrastructure necessary to regulate agriculture, grazing, forestry, mining, hunting, civil conflict, and tourism, financial and human resources and a reassuring legal framework [81]. The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Jenairo, Brazil, in an attempt to promote the management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests, introduced the non-legally Binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of all Types of Forests, also known as the Forest Principles. By the year 2007, the United Nations General Assembly adopted the Forest Instrument which is an important step towards achieving sustainable forest management globally. The concept of sustainable forest management has influenced many new initiatives, prompted revisions to forest policies and practices and been widely accepted around the world by forestry organizations at all levels. It continues to evolve through implementation of criteria and indicators processes at the national, regional and ecoregional levels [82].

The FAO in 2000 stated that in order to meet the demands for food in a growing population, sustainable development of agriculture, fisheries as well as forests can be achieved through biotechnology [83]. The term biotechnology has been defined as the development or use of living organisms to produce, alter or improve a product or a living organism for a specified purpose. It comprises of not only conventional breeding, including domestication plant and animals, but rather, modern innovations emphasizing on biological systems [84]. Although this field has provided grounds for rapid development of new technologies, yet there is limited availability of studies on its role in forest plantation, and ecological benefits arising from genetically modified tree species. This basically arises due to the fact that trees possess the known characteristics of being sessile, having a longer lifespan, is outcrossing and can disperse pollen and seeds across very long distances, and would likely be established in environments with potential mating proximity populations of other species. These issues all of which have been overlooked [85]. However, the use of biotechnology has played a pivotal role in the processing sector, such as pulp and paper production. It also plays a significant role in various stages of the production, starting from planting to harvesting. The first ever application of biotechnology in forestry in order to increase seedling growth in tissue culture was the inoculation of seedlings with symbiotic organisms (specifically mycorrhizae). Owing to a better understanding of genetics as well as development of new techniques, forest biotechnology, now focuses on areas such as propagation, genetic transformation and genetic diversity studies which would ultimately lead to conservation of species that are not only economically but ecologically important as well [86].
