**1. Introduction: Meghalaya- the people, the forests and conservation**

Meghalaya (in sanskrit, Meghalaya meaning "abode of clouds") is one of the seven states that are popularly known as the seven-sisters, located in the North Eastern part of India. Lying between 25° 47′ and 26° 10' N latitude, and 89° 45′ and 92° 47′ E longitude the state of Meghalaya is represented by an irregular terrain in the western and northern regions, and steep slopes to the south and west sharing a 496 km long international border with Bangladesh (**Figure 1**). It has a wide range of altitudinal variation ranging from about 50–1950 m [1], with Shillong peak as the highest peak. With a geographical area of 22 429 square km. [2], the diverse topography of the state provides for a variety of unique vegetation types at different levels of altitude accompanied by varied climatic conditions and edaphic composition. In general, the forests types in Meghalaya can be broadly classified into temperate and tropical mainly based on the rainfall, altitude and composition of dominant species [3].

**Figure 1.** *Map of Meghalaya [source: http://megipr.gov.in].*

The variation in elevation and physical relief affects the climate of Meghalaya. The geographical area of Meghalaya is divided into three major regions, namely, the Khasi Hills, the Jaintia Hills and the Garo Hills. Garo Hills is relatively lower in elevation as compared to Khasi and Jaintia Hills and therefore experiences higher temperature conditions and humidity. The Khasi and Jaintia Hills experience a moderate climate because of higher elevation. Rainfall in the state is also influenced by the difference in elevation and topography. The average annual rainfall varies from place to place, about 2600 mm in western Meghalaya, between 2500 and 3000 mm over the northern parts and about 4000 mm over south-eastern Meghalaya [4]. The southern parts of the Meghalaya plateau have the Cherrapunji -Mawsynram region which receives the heaviest rainfall, an annual average of 14,000 mm. In fact, the two places Mawsynram and Cherrapunjee (also Sohra) in Meghalaya are famous for receiving the highest rainfall in the World. A combination of all these factors results in a variety of unique habitats [5, 6].

Most tribal populations in India have a close interaction with nature and especially with the forests. They live close to the forests and depend on them for obtaining various resources for their needs. Meghalaya is a very diverse state having a sizeable number of indigenous groups that includes the Khasis, the Garos and Jaintias (in higher numbers); and other groups like the Karbis, Mikirs, Hajongs, Kochs and Rabhas in smaller numbers [7, 8]. The three major regions, namely, the Khasi Hills, the Jaintia Hills and the Garo Hills are inhabited by three main indigenous communities, the Khasi tribe, the Jaintias and the Garos respectively. The tribal people of Meghalaya nurture tracts of forests that are located close to their settlement as reserved forests as part of their culture, or religious belief or for different community benefits like water sources, forest resources, etc. The Khasi and Jaintia hills are home to a large number of forests that are held as sacred by the indigenous people and remain undisturbed by any human activity. The forests are believed to be the dwelling place of the deities and hence considered as spiritual places similar to a place of worship as in any religion. It is therefore forbidden to collect or gather anything that belongs to the forest, even as small as leaves, wood, water, etc. without the knowledge of the elders of the community or the local people in charge of the forest or care takers of these forests. These practices are

#### **Figure 2.**

*Map of Meghalaya showing forest cover [source: https://megbiodiversity.nic.in/].*

passed on from one generation to another like some traditional or customary law. Such practices of the tribal communities have been seen to promote conservation by their cultural beliefs, religious beliefs and even their customary laws [9–11].

The pattern of land ownership plays an important role in determining the type of land use in Meghalaya and thus, the amount of forest cover. In the three regions of Meghalaya the land ownership and land tenure system vary according to administration and religious beliefs of the people. According to the 6th schedule of Indian constitution, land ownership systems in Meghalaya and other parts of North Eastern India are imparted with a special status. Tiwari and Shahi broadly classify the land ownership system in Meghalaya into two types, i.e. riotwary and customary land system [12]. In the riotwary system the government deals directly with the land owners without interference of intermediaries.

The State Forest Department has classified the forests of Meghalaya (**Figure 2**) into the following six categories, see in [13].


considers the status of protected forest as an interim measure; the department intends to convert these forests into reserved forests.


This type of forest management according to traditions and rituals in Meghalaya existed before British occupation. And although they cannot be considered to be scientific in approach but were seen to be very effective in protection and conservation of forests. According to the tribal customary laws of Meghalaya, the forests can be further divided into different types according to their intended use. These include- sacred forests (Law Kyntang), village forests (Law Shnong), village restricted forests (Law Adong), forests belonging to a group of villages (Law Raid), private forest or community land (Law Ri-Sumar), private forests or private land (Law Ri-Kynti), clan forest (Law Kur) and cemetery forests (Law Lum Jingtep). These forests are currently called community reserved forests or community conserved areas and they serve a number of ecosystem services to the communities including serving as catchment areas for water sources, conservation of flora and faunal biodiversity, and sanctuary to a variety of medicinal plants [14].

The present study aims to highlight the impact of community reserved forests on the conservation of anuran amphibian biodiversity in the state of Meghalaya. Our study is based on review of an extensive survey of literature. In addition, our aim is to establish the importance of the reserved forests in preservation of pristine habitats for both floral and faunal diversity in the state.
