**2.1 Amphibian records from Meghalaya (old records to new discoveries)**

Meghalaya, North East India is evident to have the richest expression of amphibians in North East India. The hilly terrain of the state with its numerous hills, valleys, streams, rivers, drainages along with cascading waterfalls, rainfed pools and grasslands all of which serve as congenial or compatible habitats that harbor a wide variety of amphibians with high level of endemism. The amphibians include anurans (tailless amphibians such as frogs and toads), salamanders (tailed amphibians) and caecilians (limbless amphibians). Among amphibians, anurans are the major and diverse component of many terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems. The pioneering studies relevant to diversity of amphibians in Meghalaya, North East India is evident from the accounts made by some workers such as Boulenger [17, 18], Yazdani and Chanda [19], Pillai and Yazdani [20], Pillai and Chanda [21–24], Sahu and Khare [25] and Hooroo [26]. Earlier records on the amphibian species of Meghalaya include descriptions contributed by Boulenger [18] who described a new frog *Rana garoensis* from Garo Hills while Roonwal and Kripalani [27] described *Philautus cherrapunjiae* from Cherrapunjee. Further, Yazdani and Chanda [19] described the Khasi Hills Rock Toad, *Ansonia meghalayana* from Mawblang near Cherrapunjee and this species was later reallocated to the genus *Bufoides* by Pillai and Yazdani [20]. This endemic Rock Toad (*Bufoides meghalayana*) (**Figure 3**) which was thought to be extinct from the wild was rediscovered again after 30 years from the same locality by Das *et al*. [28]. Pillai and Chanda [29] reported and described a new species of *Philautus* (*Raorchestes*) from Shillong, viz. *Raorchestes shillongensis* (**Figure 4**). Pillai and Chanda [22] also described two new frogs from

**Figure 3.** *Bufoides meghalayana.*

**Figure 4.** *Raorchestes shillongensis.*

**Figure 5.** *Hylarana danielli.*

Mawphlang, Meghalaya viz. *Rana danieli* (**Figure 5**) and *Rana mawphlangensis*. In addition, Chanda [30] described a new frog *Rana mawlyndipi* (Ranidae) from Khasi hills, Meghalaya, India. The limbless amphibian, *Ichthyophis garoensis* was described as a new species by Pillai and Ravichandran [31] from Garo Hills.

Amphibians currently include 8352 recognized species with representatives found virtually in all temperate and tropical lands except for Arctic and Antarctic latitudes and in many oceanic islands. At present, 445 species of amphibians (composed of three orders- Anura, Gymnophiona and Caudata) are known from India. Of these, 404 species belong to Anura, 39 species belong to Gymnophiona and 2 species belongs to Caudata [32]. The seven sister states of North-Eastern India that comprised of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya and Sikkim harbours 146 species of amphibian assemblages out of which 53 are endemic [33].

In Meghalaya, no comprehensive studies have been made on the endemic amphibian fauna and their distribution. However, Hooroo *et al*. [26] reported for the first time the Painted Balloon Frog, *Kaloula pulchra* from Cherrapunjee, East Khasi Hills district, Meghalaya. Sen [34], reported that there are 49 species of amphibians in the state of Meghalaya. Mahony [35] redescribed *R. mawphlangensis* and reallocated the generic name and placed it in the genus *Odorrana* (**Figure 6**) based on morphological characters of the holotype. Since then, some more reports have been made on the documentation of new amphibian fauna in the state of Meghalaya. Mathew and Sen [36] described three new species of caecilians, *Ichthyophis nokrekensis, Ichthyophis alfredi and Ichthyophis daribokensis* from Nokrek Biosphere Reserve. *Pterorana khare* (Ranidae) was also reported as a new state record form Meghalaya

**Figure 6.** *Odorrana mawphlangensis.*

**Figure 7.** *Leptolalax khasiorum.*

by Rangad *et al*. [37]. A new species of megophryid frog of the genus *Leptolalax*, viz. *Leptolalax khasiorum* (**Figure 7**) was described by Das *et al*. [38] from the sacred groves of Mawphlang, East Khasi Hills, North-eastern India. Another new species of *Leptolalax* was discovered from Nokrek Biosphere Reserve viz. *Leptolalax nokrekensis* by Mathew and Sen [39]. In addition, a new Dicroglossid species was described from the same forest (Mawphlang Sacred Grove), Meghalaya by Purkayastha and Matsui [40] viz. *Fejerverya sengupti.* The discovery of a new genus of the limbless amphibian from Tura, Garo Hills namely *Chikila gaiduwani* by Kamei *et al*. [41] is also noteworthy to mention. Adding to the new discoveries of amphibian species are the new species records of four megophryid frogs namely *Xenophrys megacephala* [42] from Ri Bhoi district, *Xenophrys oropedion* [43] (**Figure 8**) from Malki forest (Riat Laban Reserved Forest) Shillong, X*enophrys falvipunctata* [44] from Mawphlang Sacred Grove and X*enophrys oreocrypta* [44] from Tura, Garo Hills. Hence till date there are 61 species of amphibians in the state of Meghalaya. Further, the list of amphibian species belonging from different families that have been recorded throughout our surveys (2015 till date) from the diversified habitats of different forest areas of Meghalaya (sacred groves, reserved and protected forests) have been listed in **Table 1**.

Endemic species have a generally restricted distribution and potential threats to these species can carry more risk of extinction than for broadly distributed species. Since, these species are highly adapted to their home range, any alterations

**Figure 8.** *Xenophrys oropedion.*

in the prevailing environmental factors caused due to anthropogenic or natural causes within their range, their adaptations can function as a source of competitive strength or weakness.

Thus, endemic species are a focus for the conservation of biological diversity, or biodiversity. The first comprehensive attempt to document the endemic species of amphibians in the state of Meghalaya was made by Saikia and Kharkongor [45], who reported in their checklist that there are 19 amphibian species which are considered endemic to the state of Meghalaya (**Table 2**).

Amphibians are a group of organisms that are highly selective about their breeding habitat and choice of suitable oviposition sites. Therefore, they are highly sensitive to changes of the variables that govern an amphibian habitat. Relatively low vagility [46, 47] and narrow habitat tolerance [48–50] seems to amplify the effect of habitat degradation, fragmentation and habitat loss on amphibians. Amphibians are among the planet's most threatened taxa and about one-third of the world's species are threatened with extinction [51]. Habitat loss and fragmentation appear to contribute directly to most of these threats [50, 52, 53]. Anthropogenic activities have brought about different degree of threats towards amphibian community [54]. Amphibian habitats in these forested areas are becoming smaller day by day. Water and moisture conservation abilities are reduced due to decrease in forest coverage. Landslides and soil erosion are covering forest creeks and thus, reducing the number of water sources in these forests. Such threats eventually hamper the breeding and breeding sites of many amphibian species. However, in the state of Meghalaya, these protected areas serve as important ground not only for amphibian diversity and abundance but also for their breeding and development. The protected forest areas seem to harbour a large number of microhabitats to many amphibian species. This is evident from the recent works by various scholars. For instance, *L. khasiorum* is reported to be one of the earliest breeders of amphibians in the forest stream of Mawphlang sacred groove [55]. Other amphibian species occurring in sympatry at this sacred groove include: *X. oropedion, Sylvirana danieli, Hylarana leptoglossa, Philautus sp., Polypedates himalayensis, Rhacophorus bipunctatus, Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis, Duttaphrynus melanostictus* (**Figure 9**), *Amolops gerbillus, Amolops formosus, and Fejervarya sengupti* [35, 38, 40, 43]. Similarly, Khongwir *et al*., [56] studied the breeding and nesting behavior of *Rhacophorus maximus* (**Figure 10**) in a Mawsynram and Sohra, the regions which lie in the southern slopes of the State and receive exceptionally high levels of rainfall. Multiple amplecting pairs are seen in the temporary rainfed pond at under the forested cover which appeared to be a congenial breeding habitat during the peak of the breeding period. Further,


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#### **Table 2.**

*Checklist of the endemic amphibians of the state of Meghalaya.*

Shangpliang *et al*., [57] studied and observed the unique characteristics of the breeding activity and oviposition of Annandale's high-altitude tree frog, *Kurixalus naso* (Annandale, 1912) (**Figure 11**) at a study site located under the protected area (Law Adong) Mawsynram, Meghalaya, North East India. The amplecting females lay scattered seed-like eggs inside the excavated burrows and the males, using their hind limbs, expose the eggs by pushing them to the mouth of the burrowing hole. This breeding strategy revealed by the tree frog *K. naso,* without foam formation is

**Figure 10.** *Rhacophorus maximus.*

**Figure 11.** *Kurixalus naso.*

unique among frogs belonging to the family Rhacophoridae. Therefore, identification of such breeding habitats may help to understand the ecological requirements of the species and to further create more realistic conservation strategies for the long-term persistence of the amphibian community [57].
