papers3://publication/DOI/10.1161/ CIRCULATIONAHA.111.023838

[16] Maria AG, Graziano R, Nicolantonio DO. Carotenoids: Potential allies of cardiovascular health? Food and Nutrition Research. 2015;**59**(1):26762. DOI: 10.3402/fnr.v59.26762

[17] Ribeiro D, Freitas M, Silva AMS, Carvalho F, Fernandes E. Antioxidant and pro-oxidant activities of carotenoids and their oxidation products. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2018;**120**:681-699. DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.07.060. Retrieved from

[18] Chung RWS, Leanderson P, Lundberg AK, Jonasson L. Lutein exerts anti-inflammatory effects in patients with coronary artery disease. Atherosclerosis. 2017b;**262**:87-93. DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2017.05. 008. Retrieved from

[19] Heller FR, Descamps O, Hondekijn JC. LDL oxidation: Therapeutic perspectives. Atherosclerosis. 1998;**137**(Suppl):S25-S31

[20] Mangels AR, Holden JM, Beecher GR, Forman MR, Lanza E. Carotenoid content of fruits and vegetables: An evaluation of analytic data. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 1993;**93**:284-296

[21] Chug-Ahuja JK, Holden JM, Forman MR, Mangels AR, Beecher GR, Lanza E. The development and application of a carotenoid database for fruits, vegetables, and selected multicomponent foods. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 1993;**93**:318-323

[22] Hankin JE, Le Marchand L, Kolonel LN, Wilkens LR. Assessment of carotenoid intakes in humans. Annals NY Academy Science. 1993;**691**:68-75

[23] Olmedilla B, Granado F, Blanco I, Rojas-Hidalgo E. Seasonal and sex-related variations in six serum carotenoids, retinol, and alphatocopherol. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1994;**60**:106-l 10

[24] Rautalahti M, Alhanes D, Huakka J, Roos E, Gref CG, Virtamo J. Seasonal variation of serum concentrations of beta-carotene and alpha-tocopherol. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1993;**57**:551-556

[25] Britton G. Structure and properties of carotenoids about function. The FASEB Journal. 1995;**9**:1551-1558

[26] Miller NJ, Sampson J, Candeias LP, et al. Antioxidant activities of carotenes and xanthophylls. FEBS Letters. 1996;**384**:240-246

[27] Stahl W, Schwarz W, Sundquist AR, et al. Cis-trans isomers of lycopene and beta-carotene in human serum and tissues. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 1992;**294**:173-177

[28] Michaud DS, Giovannucci EL, Ascherio A, et al. Associations of plasma carotenoid concentrations and dietary intake of specific carotenoids in samples of two prospective cohort studies using a new carotenoid database. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 1998;**7**:283-290

[29] Witztum JL. The oxidation hypothesis of atherosclerosis. Lancet. 1994;**344**:793-795

[30] Witztum JL. Role of oxidized lowdensity lipoprotein in atherogenesis. British Heart Journal. 1993;**69**:S12-S18

[31] Clinton SK. Lycopene: Chemistry, biology, and implications for human health and disease. Nutrition Reviews. 1998;**1**:35-51

[32] Stahl W, Sies H. Lycopene: A biologically important carotenoid for humans? Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 1996;**336**:1-9

[33] Parker RS. Absorption, metabolism, and transport of carotenoids. The FASEB Journal. 1996;**10**:542-551

[34] Gartner C, Stahl W, Sies H. Lycopene is more bioavailable from tomato ¨ paste than from fresh tomatoes. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1997;**66**:116-122

[35] Rao AV, Agarwal S. Role of lycopene as antioxidant carotenoid in the prevention of chronic diseases: A review. Nutrition Research. 1999;**19**:305-323

[36] Rao AV, Agarwal S. Bioavailability and antioxidant properties of lycopene from tomato products. Nutrition and Cancer. 1998;**31**:199-203

[37] Rao AV, Mira MR, Rao LG. Lycopene. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research. 2006;**51**:99-164

[38] Jain CK, Agarwal S, Rao AV. The effect of dietary lycopene on bioavailability, tissue distribution, in-vivo antioxidant properties, and colonic preneoplasia in rats. Nutrition Research. 1999;**19**:1383-1391

[39] Khachik F, Carvallo L, Bernstein PS, Muir GJ, Zhao DY, Katz NB. Chemistry, distribution, and metabolism of tomato carotenoids and their impact on human health. Experimental Biology and Medicine. 2002;**227**(10):845-851

[40] Rao AV, Rao LG. Lycopene and human health. Current Topical Nutrition Research. 2004;**2**:127-123

[41] Palozza P, Catalano A, Simone R. E, Mele M, C, Cittadini a: Effect of lycopene and tomato products on cholesterol metabolism. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 2012;**61**:126-134. DOI: 10.1159/000342077

[42] Fuhramn B, Elis A, Aviram M. Hypocholesterolemic effect of lycopene and ß-carotene is related to the suppression of cholesterol synthesis and augmentation of LDL receptor activity in macrophage. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 1997;**233**:658-662

[43] Agarwal S, Rao AV. Tomato lycopene and low-density lipoprotein oxidation: A human dietary intervention study. Lipids. 1998;**33**:981-984

[44] Sesso HD, Buring JE, Norkus EP, et al. Plasma lycopene, other carotenoids, retinol and the risk of cardiovascular disease in men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2005;**81**:990-997

[45] Kristenson M, Zieden B, Kucinskiene Z, et al. Antioxidant state and mortality from coronary heart disease in Lithuanian and Swedish men: Concomitant cross-sectional study of men aged 50. BMJ. 1997;**314**:629-633

[46] Mann DL et al. Targeted Anticytokine therapy and the failing heart. The American Journal of Cardiology. 2005;**95**(11, Suppl. 1):9-16

[47] Lidebjer C, Leanderson P, Ernerudh J, et al. Low plasma levels of oxygenated carotenoids in patients with coronary artery disease. Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases. 2007;**17**:448-456

[48] Ito Y, Kurata M, Suzuki K, Hamajima N, et al. Cardiovascular disease mortality and serum carotenoid levels: A Japanese populationbased follow-up study. Journal of Epidemiology. 2006;**16**:154-160

[49] Bose KS, Agrawal BK. Effect of lycopene from cooked tomatoes on serum antioxidant enzymes, lipid peroxidation rate, and lipide profile in coronary heart disease. Singapore Medical Journal. 2007;**48**:415-420

*Role of Carotenoids in Cardiovascular Disease DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102750*

[50] Rao AV, Agarwal S. Bioavailability and in vivo antioxidant properties of lycopene from tomato products and their possible role in the prevention of cancer. Nutrition and Cancer. 1998;**31**:199-203

[51] Thies F, Masson LF, Rudd A, Vaughan N, Tsang C, Brittenden J, et al. Effect of a tomato-rich diet on markers of cardiovascular disease risk in moderately overweight, disease-free, middle-aged adults: A randomized controlled trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2012;**95**(5):1013-1022. DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.111.026286

[52] Leermakers ETM, Moreira EM, Kiefte-de Jong JC, Darweesh SKL, Visser T, Voortman T, et al. Effects of choline on health across the life course: A systematic review. Nutrition Reviews. 2015;**73**(8):500-522. DOI: 10.1093/nutrit/ nuv010

[53] Holden JM, Eldridge AL, Beecher GR, Buzzard IM, Bhagwat S, Davis CS, et al. Carotenoid content of U.S. foods: An update of the database. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 1999;**12**(3):169-196. DOI: 10.1006/jfca.1999.0827

[54] Abdel-Aal E-SM, Akhtar H, Zaheer K, Ali R. Dietary sources of lutein and zeaxanthin carotenoids and their role in eye health. Nutrients. 2013;**5**: 1169-1185. DOI: 10.3390/nu5041169

[55] Zou XR, Xiao ZYX, Huang YM, Wang X, Lin XM. Effects of lutein supplement on serum inflammatory cytokines, ApoE and lipid profiles in early atherosclerosis population. Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis. 2013;**20**(2):170-177

[56] Zou Z, Xu X, Huang Y, Xiao X, Ma L, Sun T, et al. High serum level of lutein may be protective against early atherosclerosis.

The Beijing Atherosclerosis Study. 2011;**219**(2):789-793

[57] Sesso HD, Buring JE, Norkus EP, Gaziano JM. Plasma lycopene and the risk of cardiovascular disease in women. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2012;**39**:147

[58] Donhowe GE, Kong F. Beta-carotene: Digestion, microencapsulation, and In vitro bioavailability. Food and Bioprocess Technology. 2014;**7**:338-354. DOI: 10.1007/s11947-013-1244-z

[59] Loveday S, Singh H. Recent advances in technologies for vitamin a protection in foods. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 2008;**19**:657-668

[60] Yi J, Lam T, Yokoyama W, Cheng L, Zhong F. Beta-carotene encapsulated in food protein nanoparticles reduces peroxyl radical oxidation in Caco-2 cells. Food Hydrocolloids. 2015;**43**

[61] de Freitas Zômpero RH, López-Rubio A, de Pinho SC, Lagaron JM, de la Torre LG. Hybrid encapsulation structures based on β-carotene-loaded nanoliposomes within electrospun fibers. Colloids Surfaces B Biointerfaces [Internet]. 2015;**134**:475-482 Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com/ science/article/pii/S0927776515001496

[62] Jain A, Thakur D, Ghoshal G, Katare OP, Shivhare US. Characterization of microcapsulated β-carotene formed by complex Coacervation using Casein & gum Tragacanth [internet]. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules. Elsevier B.V. 2016. DOI: 10.1016/j. ijbiomac.2016.01.117

[63] van Lieshout M, West CE, van Breemen RB. Isotopic tracer techniques for studying the bioavailability and bioefficacy of dietary carotenoids, particularly beta-carotene, in humans: A review. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2003;**77**:12-28 [CrossRef]

[64] Van Loo-Bouwman CA, Naber TH, van Breemen RB, Zhu D, Dicke H, Siebelink E, et al. Vitamin an equivalency and apparent absorption of beta-carotene in ileostomy subjects using a dualisotope dilution technique. The British Journal of Nutrition. 2010;**103**:1836-1843 [CrossRef]

[65] Borel P, Grolier P, Mekki N, Boirie Y, Rochette Y, Le Roy B, et al. Low and high responders to pharmacological doses of beta-carotene: Proportion in the population, mechanisms involved and consequences on beta-carotene metabolism. Journal of Lipid Research. 1998;**39**:2250-2260

[66] Phan CT, Tso P. Intestinal lipid absorption and transport. Frontiers in Bioscience. 2001;**6**:D299-D319 [CrossRef] [PubMed]

[67] During A, Hussain MM, Morel DW, Harrison EH. Carotenoid uptake and secretion by caco-2 cells: Beta-carotene isomer selectivity and carotenoid interactions. Journal of Lipid Research. 2002;**43**:1086-1095 [CrossRef]

[68] Mapelli-Brahm P, Desmarchelier C, Margier M, Reboul E, Melendez Martinez AJ, Borel P. Phytoene and phytofluene isolated from a tomato extract are readily incorporated in mixed micelles and absorbed by caco-2 cells, as compared to lycopene, and sr-bi is involved in their cellular uptake. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 2018;**62**:e1800703 [CrossRef] [PubMed]

[69] Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin a, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 2001

[70] Parker RS. Carotenoid and tocopherol composition of human adipose tissue. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1988;**47**:33-36

[71] Zhao LG, Zhang QL, Zheng JL, Li HL, Zhang W, Tang WG, et al. Dietary, circulating betacarotene and risk of all-cause mortality: A meta-analysis from prospective studies. Scientific Reports. 2016;**6**:26983

[72] Goyal A, Terry MB, Siegel AB. Serum antioxidant nutrients, vitamin a, and mortality in u.S. adults. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2013;**22**:2202-2211

[73] Hashim D, Gaughan D, Boffetta P, Lucchini RG. Baseline serum beta-carotene concentration and mortality among longterm asbestos-exposed insulators. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2015;**24**:555-560

[74] Bates CJ, Hamer M, Mishra GD. Redox-modulatory vitamins and minerals that prospectively predict mortality in older British people: The national diet and nutrition survey of people aged 65 years and over. The British Journal of Nutrition. 2011;**105**:123-132

[75] Kilander L, Berglund L, Boberg M, Vessby B, Lithell H. Education, lifestyle factors and mortality from cardiovascular disease and cancer. A 25-year follow-up of Swedish 50-yearold men. International Journal of Epidemiology. 2001;**30**:1119-1126

[76] Vivekananthan DP, Penn MS, Sapp SK, Hsu A, Topol EJ. Use of antioxidant vitamins for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: A metaanalysis of randomized trials. Lancet. 2003;**361**:2017e23

[77] Buijsse B, Feskens EJ, Kwape L, Kok FJ, Kromhout D. Both alpha- and *Role of Carotenoids in Cardiovascular Disease DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102750*

beta-carotene, but not tocopherols and vitamin C, are inversely related to 15-year cardiovascular mortality in Dutch elderly men. The Journal of Nutrition. 2008;**138**:344e50

[78] Ito Y, Kurata M, Suzuki K, Hamajima N, Hishida H, Aoki K. Cardiovascular disease mortality and serum carotenoid levels: A Japanese population-based follow-up study. Journal of Epidemiology. 2006;**16**:154e60

[79] Ito Y, Suzuki K, Ishii J, Hishida H, Tamakoshi A, Hamajima N, et al. A population-based follow-up study on mortality from cancer or cardiovascular disease and serum carotenoids, retinol and tocopherols in Japanese inhabitants. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2006;**7**:533e46

[80] Tapiero H, Townsend DM, Tew KD. Dossier: Influence of alcohol consumption and smoking habits on human health, the role of carotenoids in the prevention of human pathologies. Biomed & Pharmacotherapy. 2004;**58**: 100-110

[81] Jialal I, Norkus EP, Cristol L, Grundy SM. Beta-carotene inhibits the oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein. Biochem Biophys Acta. 1991;**1086**:1348

[82] Aizawa T, Wei H, Miano JM, Abe J. Role of PDE-3 in NO/cGMP-mediated anti-inflammatory effects in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circulation Research. 2003;**93**:40613

[83] Harari A, Harats D, Marko D, Cohen H, Barshack I, Kamari Y, et al. A 9-cis b-Caroteneenriched diet inhibits atherogenesis and fatty liver formation in LDL-R knockout mice. Journal of Nutrition Diseases. 2008;**138**:192330

[84] Bogacz-Radomska L, Harasym J, Piwowar A. Commercialization aspects of carotenoids. Carotenoids: Properties, Processing, and Applications. 2020;**10**:327-357. DOI: 10.1016/ B978-0-12-817067-0.00010-5

[85] Saini RK, Nile SH, Park SW. Carotenoids from fruits and vegetables: Chemistry, analysis, occurrence, bioavailability, and biological activities. Food Research International (Ottawa, Ont.). 2015;**76**(Pt 3):735-750. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2015.07.047

[86] Sy C, Gleize B, Dangles O, Landrier JF, Veyrat CC, Borel P. Effects of physicochemical properties of carotenoids on their bioaccessibility, intestinal cell uptake, and blood and tissue concentrations. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 2012;**56**(9): 1385-1397. DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.201200041

[87] Choi HD, Youn YK, Shin WG. Positive effects of astaxanthin on lipid profiles and oxidative stress in overweight subjects. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition (Dordrecht, Netherlands). 2011;**66**(4):363-369. DOI: 10.1007/s11130-011-0258-9

[88] Honda M, Murakami K, Osawa Y, Kawashima Y, Hirasawa K, Kuroda I. Z-isomers of astaxanthin exhibit greater bioavailability and tissue accumulation efficiency than the all-E-isomer. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2021;**69**(11):3489-3495. DOI: 10.1021/acs. jafc.1c00087

[89] Yang C, Zhang H, Liu RH, Zhu HH, Zhang LF, Tsao R. Bioaccessibility, cellular uptake, and transport of astaxanthin isomers and their antioxidative effects in human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2017;**65**(47):10223-10232. DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b04254

[90] Osterlie M, Bjerkeng B, Liaaen-Jensen S. Plasma appearance and

distribution of plasma lipoproteins of men after single-dose administration of astaxanthin. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry. 2000;**11**(10):482-490. DOI: 10.1016/S0955-2863(00)00104-2

[91] Schweigert F. Metabolism of Carotenoids in Mammals. Basel, Switzerland: Birkhauser Verlag; 1998

[92] Nakano M, Onodera A, Saito E, Tanabe M, Yajima K, Takahashi J, et al. Effect of astaxanthin in combination with alpha-tocopherol or ascorbic acid against oxidative damage in diabetic ODS rats. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology. 2008;**54**:32934

[93] Park JS, Chyun JH, Kim YK, Line LL, Chew BP. Astaxanthin decreased oxidative stress and inflammation and enhanced immune response in humans. Nutrition and Metabolism. 2010;**7**:18

[94] Yasui Y, Hosokawa M, Mikami N, Miyashita K, Tanaka T. Dietary astaxanthin inhibits colitis and colitisassociated colon carcinogenesis in mice via modulation of the inflammatory cytokines. Chemico-Biological Interactions. 2011;**193**(1):79-87

[95] Yang Y, Kim B, Lee JY. Astaxanthin structure, metabolism, and health benefits. Journal of Human Nutrition & Food Science. 2013;**1**:1003

[96] Grimmig B, Kim SH, Nash K, Bickford PC, Shytle RD. Neuroprotective mechanisms of astaxanthin: A potential therapeutic role in preserving cognitive function in age and neurodegeneration. Geroscience. 2017;**39**(1):19-32

[97] Visioli F, Artaria C. Astaxanthin in cardiovascular health and disease: Mechanisms of action, therapeutic merits, and knowledge gaps. Food & Function. 2017;**8**(1):39-63

[98] Guan L, Liu J, Yu H, Tian H, Wu G, Liu B, et al. Water-dispersible astaxanthin-rich nanopowder: Preparation, oral safety, and antioxidant activity in vivo. Food & Function. 2019;**10**(3):1386-1397

[99] Humphries JM, Khachik F. Distribution of lutein, zeaxanthin, and related geometrical isomers in fruits, vegetable, wheat, and pasta products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003;**51**:1322-1327

[100] Chandrika UG, Jansz ER, Wickranasinghe SMDN, Warnasuriya ND. Carotenoids in yellow and red-fleshed papaya (Carcia papaya L). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2003;**83**:1279-1282

[101] United States Department of Agriculture. Nutritional data laboratory home page. USDA Nutritional database for standard reference release 22. 2009. Available online: http://www.ars.usda. gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=20960 [Accessed November 24, 2012].

[102] Van Het Hof KH, Weststrate JA, Hautvast JG. Dietary factors that affect the bioavailability of carotenoids. Nutrition Research. 1999;**130**:503-506

[103] Castenmiller JJ, West CE. Bioavailability and bioconversion of carotenoids. Annual Review of Nutrition. 1998;**18**:19-38

[104] Bohn T. Bioavailability of nonprovitamin a carotenoids. Current Nutrition & Food Science. 2008;**4**:240-258

[105] O'Connell OF, Ryan L, O'Brien NB. Xanthophyll carotenoids are more bioaccessible from fruits than dark green vegetables. Nutrition Research. 2007;**27**:258-264

[106] Kean EG, Hamaker BR, Ferruzzi MG. Carotenoids

*Role of Carotenoids in Cardiovascular Disease DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102750*

bioaccessibility from whole grain and degermed maize meal products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2008;**56**:9918-9926

[107] Maiani G, Periago Caston MJ, Catasta G, Toti E, Cambrodon IG, Bysted A, et al. Carotenoids: Actual knowledge on food sources, intakes, stability and bioavailability and their protective role in humans. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 2009;**53**:S194-S218

[108] Abdel-Aal E-SM, Young JC, Akhtar H, Rabalski I. Stability of lutein in wholegrain bakery products naturally high in lutein or fortified with free lutein. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2010;**58**:10109-10117

[109] De La Parra C, Saldivar SOS, Lui RH. Effect of processing on the phytochemical profiles and antioxidant activity of corn for production of masa, tortillas, and tortilla chips. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2007;**55**:4177-4183

[110] Abdel-Aal E-SM, Young JC, Rabalski I, Frégeau-Reid J, Hucl P. Identification, and quantification of seed carotenoids in selected wheat species. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2007;**55**:787-794

[111] Pfander H. Carotenoids: an over-view. Methods in Enzymology. 1992;**213**:313

[112] Giblin FJ. Glutathione: a vital lens antioxidant. Journal of Ocular Pharmacology and Therapeutics. 2000;**16**:12135

[113] Gao S, Qin T, Liu Z, Caceres MA, Ronchi CF, Chen CYO, et al. Lutein and zeaxanthin supplementation reduces H2O2- induced oxidative damage in human lens epithelial cells. Molecular Vision. 2011;**17**:318090

[114] Dwyer JH, Paul-Labrador MJ, Fan J. Progression of carotid intima-media thickness and plasma antioxidants: The Los Angeles atherosclerosis study. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology. 2004;**24**:31319

[115] Krishaswamy R, Devaraj SN, Padma VV. Lutein protects HT29 cells against Deoxynivalenol-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis: Prevention of NF-(B nuclear localization and downregulation of NF-(B and COX-2)) expression. Free Radical Biology & Medicine. 2010;**49**:5060

[116] Dilsiz N, Sahaboglu A, Yildiz M, Reichenbach A. Protective effects of various antioxidants during ischemiareperfusion in the rat retina. Graefe's Archive for Clinical and Experimental Ophthalmology. 2006;**244**:62733

[117] Peng CL, Lin ZF, Su YZ, Lin GZ, Dou HY, Zhao CX. The anti-oxidative function of lutein: Electron spin resonance studies and chemical detection. Funct Plant Biology. 2006;**33**:83946

[118] Ashino T, Yamanaka R, Yamamoto M, Shimokawa H, Sekikawa K, Iwakura Y, et al. Negative feedback regulation of LPS-induced inducible NOS gene expression by HMOX-1 induction in macrophages. Molecular Immunology. 2008;**45**:210615

[119] Jin XH, Ohgami K, Shiratori K, Suzuki Y, Hirano T, Koyama Y, et al. Inhibitory effects of lutein on endo toxin-induced uveitis in Lewis rats. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science. 2006;**47**:25628

[120] Kim JE, Leite JO, DeOgburn R, Smyth JA, Clark RM, Fernandez ML. A lutein-enriched diet prevents cholesterol accumulation and decreases ox-LDL and inflammatory cytokines in the aorta of

Guinea pigs. The Journal of Nutrition. 2011;**141**:145863

[121] Zou Z, Xu X, Huang Y, Xiao X, Ma L, Sun T, et al. High serum level of lutein may be protective against early ATS: The Beijing atherosclerosis study. Atherosclerosis. 2011;**219**:78993

[122] Hozawa A, Jacobs JDR, Steffes MW, Gross MD, Steffen LM, Lee DH. Circulating carotenoid concentrations and incident hypertension: The coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. Journal of Hypertension. 2009;**27**:23742

[123] Voutilainen S, Nurmi T, Mursu J, Rissanen TH. Carotenoids and cardiovascular health. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2006;**83**:126571

[124] Adluri RS, Thirunavukkarasu M, Zhan L, Maulik N, Svennevig K, Bagchi M, et al. Cardio-protective efficacy of a novel antioxidant mix vitaepro against ex vivo myocardial ischemiareperfusion injury. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics. 2011;**30**:93007

[125] Phaniendra A, Jestadi DB, Periyasamy L. Free radicals: Properties, sources, targets, and their implication in various diseases. Indian. Journal of Clinical Biochemistry. 2015;**30**:11-26 [CrossRef] [PubMed]

[126] Katerji M, Filippova M, Duerksen-Hughes P. Approaches, and methods to measure oxidative stress in clinical samples: Research applications in the cancer field. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2019;**2019**:29. DOI: 10.1155/2019/1279250

[127] Rahman T, Hamzan NS, Mokhsin A, Rahmat R, Ibrahim ZO, Razali R, et al. Enhanced status of inflammation and endothelial activation in subjects with

familial hypercholesterolaemia and their related unaffected family members: A case control study. Lipids in Health and Disease. 2017;**16**:81. DOI: 10.1186/ s12944-017-0470-1

[128] Kohlmeier L, Kark JD, Gomez-Gracia E, Martin BC, Steck SE, Kardinaal AF, et al. Lycopene and myocardial infarction risk in the EURAMIC study. American Journal of Epidemiology. 1997;**146**:618-626

[129] Buijsse B, Feskens EJ, Schlettwein-Gsell D, Ferry M, Kok FJ, Kromhout D, et al. Plasma carotene and alphatocopherol in relation to 10-y all-cause and cause-specific mortality in European elderly: The survey in Europe on nutrition and the elderly, a concerted action (SENECA). The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2005;**82**:879-886

[130] Ciccone MM, Cortese F, Gesualdo M, Carbonara S, Zito A, Ricci G, et al. Dietary intake of carotenoids and their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects in cardiovascular care. Mediators of Inflammation. 2013;**2013**:782137

[131] Gajendragadkar PR, Hubsch A, Maki-Petaja KM, Serg M, Wilkinson IB, Cheriyan J. Effects of oral lycopene supplementation on vascular function in patients with cardiovascular disease and healthy volunteers: A randomized controlled trial. PLoS One. 2014;**9**:99070

[132] Fortmann SP, Ford E, Criqui MH, Folsom AR, Harris TB, Hong Y, et al. CDC/AHA workshop on markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease: Application to clinical and public health practice: Report from the population science discussion group. Circulation. 2004;**110**:554-559

[133] Blankenberg S, Rupprecht HJ, Bickel C, Peetz D, Hafner G, Tiret L, *Role of Carotenoids in Cardiovascular Disease DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102750*

et al. Circulating cell adhesion molecules and death in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation. 2001;**104**: 1336-1342

[134] Blake GJ, Ridker PM. Inflammatory biomarkers and cardiovascular risk prediction. Journal of Internal Medicine. 2002;**252**:283-294

[135] van Herpen-Broekmans WM, Klöpping-Ketelaars IA, Bots ML, Kluft C, Princen H, Hendriks HF, et al. Serum carotenoids and vitamins in relation to markers of endothelial function and inflammation. European Journal of Epidemiology. 2004;**19**:915-921

[136] Kaulmann A, Bohn T. Carotenoids, inflammation, and oxidative stress- -implications of cellular signaling pathways and relation to chronic disease prevention. Nutrition Research. 2014;**34**:907-929

[137] Di Tomo P, Canali R, Ciavardelli D, Di Silvestre S, De Marco A, Giardinelli A, et al. Beta-carotene, and lycopene affect endothelial response to TNF-alpha reducing nitro-oxidative stress and interaction with monocytes. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 2012;**56**:217-227

[138] Khansari N, Shakiba Y, Mahmoudi M. Chronic infl ammation and oxidative stress as a major cause of age-related diseases and cancer. Recent Patents on Inflammation & Allergy Drug Discovery. 2009;**3**:73-80

[139] Dietary guidelines for Americans. Home and Garden Bulletin no 232. 5th ed. Washington, DC: US Department of Agriculture, US Department of Health and Human Services; 2000

[140] Bendall JK, Cave AC, Heymes C, Gall N, Shah AM. Pivotal role of a gp91phox-containing NADPH oxidase in angiotensin II-induced cardiac hypertrophy in mice. Circulation. 2002;**105**(3):293-296

[141] Umar S, Van Der Laarse A. Nitric oxide and nitric oxide synthase isoforms in the normal, hypertrophic, and failing heart. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry. 2010;**333**(1-2):191-201

[142] Lijun DAI, Brookes PS, Darley-Usmar VM, Anderson PG. Bioenergetics in cardiac hypertrophy: Mitochondrial respiration as a pathological target of NO∗. American Journal of Physiology. 2001;**281**(6):H2261-H2269

[143] Saavedra WF, Paolocci N, John MES, et al. Imbalance between xanthine oxidase and nitric oxide synthase signaling pathways underlies mechanoenergetic uncoupling in the failing heart. Circulation Research. 2002;**90**(3):297-304
