**6. OSCC treatment strategies based on nanomaterials**

Traditional therapeutic approaches to treating OSCC are associated with a number of side effects that can be both temporary and permanent. Oral carcinogenesis has been shown to respond well to novel treatment approaches. This group could include therapeutic molecules such as siRNAs and various active targeting ligands. Several natural products have also shown promise in the treatment of oral cancer by interfering with various cell signaling pathways such as free radical scavenging, inhibiting the formation of DNA adducts, and regulating the properties of apoptosis-related genes. However, these compounds' low bioavailability and solubility have limited their clinical application. As a result, it is critical to improve preventative and therapeutic strategies. For the development of drug delivery systems, the time of drug contact with oral tumor cells is an important consideration. As a result, a sustained and targeted mucoadhesive drug delivery system into the oral cavity has been developed. The residence time of nanoparticles can improve drug mucus interaction and result in better results. The studies also revealed that local delivery of nanoparticles can be used for site-specific chemoprevention and therapy. Nonspecific drug uptake is reduced by cells to improve drug targeting into the oral cancer site. The reticuloendothelial system (RES) and improved plasma half-life, which result in lower drug dosage, are two other advantages. The aspects of cancer therapy are based on nanoparticles. According to scientific reports, various types of nanoparticles have been tested for cancer therapy. Some of the most recent nanoparticles that have been tested for the treatment of drug-resistant cancer cells include magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs), liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, gold (Au) nanoparticles, and nano-diamonds. Various nanotechnology approaches can be used to selectively target cancer biomarkers and cancer cells. The use of specific crosslinkers against cancer cells, such as antibodies or aptamers, can also facilitate the development of early detection methods. **Figure 2** summarizes the potential therapeutic approaches.

Oral oncogenesis is a type of cancer that starts in the mouth and spreads to the rest of the body. Nanocarriers are also being developed that are functionalized with various targeting agents (ligands, tumor-associated proteins). Antigens, antibodies, and aptamers have shown promise in improving the cancer cell delivery of a specific target. In a variety of main cancer immunotherapy or target drug/gene delivery pathways, this strategy can use a single agent or a combination of agents. It can be viewed as a primary strategy involving specific interactions between the nanocarrier and receptors on the target cancer cell, which could promote nanocarrier internalization endocytosis through receptors. A basic understanding of cell biology, tumor biology, and immunology is required for the rational design of NPs for cancer therapeutics, and advances in nanotechnology will be heavily reliant on advances in cancer biology. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are one of the most researched nano-delivery systems in cancer treatment. The MNPs showed high efficiency and ideal drug loading when coated with oleic acid and embedded with anticancer agents such as doxorubicin and paclitaxel, according to the reports. Various researchers have investigated them for therapeutic approaches such as hyperthermic therapy, that is, magneto hyperthermia (MHT). The toxicity of this method was reduced while the specific lysis of tumor cells was increased. Candido et al. investigated the effects of polyphosphate-coated MNPs on human OSCC (UM-SCC14A). Their findings showed that cancer treatment with magneto hyperthermia can be effective related to cell death in the target cancer tissue According to the authors, there were two main findings from MNP-based magneto hyperthermia treatment: a high level of apoptosis and fibrosis, as well as an inhibition effect on cell proliferation. As a carrier for anticancer drug delivery, polymeric nanoparticles

*Way to Cure Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma with Theranostics and Nanoparticular Approaches DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100181*

#### **Figure 2.**

*There have been advancements in the treatment of oral cancer. A wide range of drugs and/or therapeutic molecules are used to treat oral cancer. Nanocarriers show promise in the development of effective oral oncology therapy, in addition to active targeting ligands.*

have been shown to be impactful. It is one of the most widely used nanoparticles *in vitro* and *in vivo*. However, before they can be used in clinical trials, they must overcome a number of challenges. In addition to low molecular weight drugs, polymeric nanoparticles have demonstrated the ability to transport macromolecules such as proteins and genes. Hydrophilic polymers, such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), aid in the stabilization of nanoparticles, which improves drug targeting into cancer sites by reducing nonspecific drug uptake by cells, according to the studies. These nanoparticles are less toxic, have a higher level of stability, and have a higher loading capacity, according to reports. Because of the properties of drugs that are not soluble in water, the use of biodegradable polymers has increased dramatically in recent years, such as increased plasma half-life and reticuloendothelial system inhibition of fast clearance (RES). Biodegradable linkages can be used as a backbone to assist in the formation of high-surface-area nanoparticles. In the case of apoptosis induction in SCC-9 human OSCCs, PCL nanoparticles with curcumin were coated with chitosan, which showed promising outcomes of this research. When Sulfikkarali et al. used the nanoprecipitation method to create naringenin-loaded polymeric (Eudragit E) nanoparticles and tested their anticancer activity in hamster carcinogenesis, they discovered that they had a significant anticancer effect. The prepared nanoparticles (with an average size of 90 nm) had an encapsulation

efficiency of 88%, indicating that they were effective at encapsulating their surroundings. They discovered that a polymeric drug-loaded nanoparticle improved the anticancer efficacy of naringenin and had better antilipid peroxidative, antiproliferative, and antioxidant properties than the free drug. When developing controlled-release mucoadhesive drug delivery systems, the time at which the drug comes into contact with oral tumor cells is an important factor to take into account. The development of a long-acting, targeted mucoadhesive drug delivery system for the oral cavity may be advantageous as a result. To create a mucoadhesive patch of methotrexate (MTX)-loaded liposomes for targeted delivery in OSCC, Jin et al. used the thin film hydration method, which they developed in-house. The liposomes that were prepared had a mean particle size of 105 nm and a loading efficiency of 54%, respectively. Using an MTT assay, HSC-3 cells were utilised to examine the cytotoxicity of the liposomes that had been generated. The mucoadhesive buccal patches had appropriate bioadhesive qualities as well as the potential to offer sustained MTX release, according to the scientists. According to their findings, oral mucoadhesive patches for oral cancer can be utilised as a primary strategy to bypass the constraints of targeted delivery in oral cancer chemotherapy, lowering the required dose while reducing drug toxicity. According to the researchers' findings, the nanoparticles they prepared had a pro-oxidant effect in HSC-3 cells due to the high levels of ROS present in their experiments. Due to the ease with which they can be prepared, their high biocompatibility, and their ideal functionalization properties, gold (Au) nanoparticles are gaining attention in the field of cancer therapy. It is possible that their ability to conjugate with other biomolecules without altering their biological properties will prove to be a very useful option for the treatment of oral cancer, having the ability to conjugate a wide range of mucoadhesive substances. The combination of biopolymers and the outstanding properties of Au nanoparticles, such as their non-cytotoxicity, has resulted in their widespread application, which is used in a variety of biomedical applications and drug delivery systems to treat a variety of oral cancer cells of different types. Furthermore, these nanoparticles are one of the most well-known cancer nanoparticles due to their surface plasmon resonance, which is a property of surface plasmon resonance. The importance of early detection cannot be overstated. In order to improve the early detection of diseases such as cancer, as previously stated, many studies are being conducted and expanded. For bio-imaging and diagnostic applications, nano-diamonds have attracted considerable attention due to their low toxicity, ideal surface properties, and stable fluorescence that does not fade when exposed to ultraviolet light. These nanoparticles can also be used to immobilize proteins, making them excellent candidates for local drug delivery into oral diseases such as oral cancer.
