*2.5.2.1 Organoids*

Patient-derived tumour organoids, which serve as in vitro tumour models and predictors of medication responses, are one strategy now under investigation for customised cancer treatment. In vitro cancer cell lines, patient-derived xenografts, and 3D culture models are all used in traditional cancer research and therapy. Due to the diversity and variability of the tumour microenvironment, these are restricted in their ability to precisely correlate an individual tumour's response to a treatment. Organoids provide a more faithful depiction of this dynamic niche, and data suggests that the genetic and functional similarities between patient-derived tumour organoids and the real thing are striking [73].

#### *2.5.3 Targetted mononclonal antibodies for cancer therapy*

Because of their low cytotoxicity, high specificity, and scalability, mAbs have proven particularly promising for cancer therapies among the numerous molecularbased approaches (e.g., small compounds, mAbs, and vaccines). mAbs are Y-shaped proteins that can attach to a specific molecular target and are created either synthetically or by B lymphocytes. mAbs are one of the most rapidly expanding immunotherapies, with over 22 FDA-approved mAb-based oncology medicines. mAb-based therapies, in contrast to standard therapies (e.g., surgery, radiation, and/or chemotherapy), are targeted to specific molecular markers expressed by a specific tumour, and so are more likely to be effective [74]. Typically, monoclonal antibodies (e.g., cetuximab) or synthetic small molecules are used to target cancerspecific cell receptors or intracellular signalling pathways (eg, gefinitib) in OC [9]. The tested drugs include, Cetuximab (Erbitux), pembrolizumab (Keytruda) and nivolumab (Opdivo).

Anti-EGFR monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) possess an antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC), and antitumor activity. Mice study has shown EMab-17(Anti-EGFR mAb) may be used as an antibody-based therapy for EGFR-expressing OSCC [75].
