*3.3.1 Nanocomposites*

Epoxy-based FRP (Fiber-reinforced Polymer) composites have relatively high thermal stability. Nevertheless, it possesses low crack growth resistance that limits mechanical applications. Studies have confirmed that hybridizing fibers and fillers can significantly enhance the properties of epoxy FRPs [59]. The theory of


#### **Table 8.**

*Comparison of CNF extraction method from corn Stover and corn stalk.*


#### **Table 9.**

*Comparison of CNF extraction method from pineapple peels and leaves.*


#### **Table 10.**

*Nanocomposites based on cellulose nanofibers.*

hybridization offers great opportunities for applications in automotive, aerospace and construction [60, 61]. The incorporation of nanofillers in FPR improves the physical, mechanical, morphological, thermal and dynamic properties of the composites [62]. Hence, CNF has become a viable alternative when compared to carbon nanofillers [63] due to its biodegradability, high aspect ratio and significant mechanical properties [64]. **Table 10** summarizes the previous research works on the developed Kenaf hybrid thermoplastics, thermoset and biopolymer composites for advanced applications.

### *3.3.2 Packaging*

The synthetic plastic wastes generated from the food packaging industry are disastrous to the environment if left unrecycled. Hence, the development of biodegradable films and coatings has been widely studied recently. These biopolymers


#### **Table 11.**

*Packaging based on CNFs.*

are renewable, abundant, cost-effective and non-toxic. Furthermore, the tensile strength and elongation at break are considered the main mechanical properties required to preserve the integrity of the packed food. Since nanocelluloses possess these properties, they are ideal components of biodegradable food packaging [68]. The popular product features of NCF-based packaging required by researchers include a shelf-life extension [69], heat resistance [53], and intelligent packaging [70]. Other properties include transparent packaging [71], ultra-violet screening packaging, and anti-microbial packaging [72]. **Table 11** shows the various NCFbased packaging blends made from lignocellulosic banana, pineapple and corn residues for packaging by researchers.
