Possible Mitigating Measures of Insect Decline

#### **Chapter 6**

## Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control of Insects and Pests

*Nazeer Ahmed, Mukhtar Alam, Muhammad Saeed, Hidayat Ullah, Toheed Iqbal, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Kiran Shahjeer, Rafi Ullah, Saeed Ahmed, Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed, Hanem Fathy Khater and Muhammad Salman*

#### **Abstract**

Insect control for crops is one of the most critical global concerns. Pest management is an economic and ecological problem worldwide due to the human and environmental risks raised by most synthetic pesticide products. Botanical insecticides have resurfaced in popularity due to their low cost and low environmental impact, rather than their negative effects on human health. Botanical insecticides destroy only the insects they are meant to kill, leaving no residue on food or in the environment. Botanicals have long been used to combat pests. The compounds have many environmental advantages. However, as opposed to other bio-control pests and pathogens, their use was minimal during the twentieth century. In developing countries, botanical insecticides are well adapted for use in organic food production. Nonetheless, they may play a far bigger role in developed countries' food production and post-harvest food protection. Consequently, the current chapter briefly addresses botanicals with active ingredients with insecticidal, antifeedant, or repellent properties.

**Keywords:** insect, crop protection, active constituents, insecticides, natural products, action mechanism

#### **1. Introduction**

Insects are the world's most abundant animal species, and they can be found in any ecosystem. Pest insects account for fewer than 0.5 percent of all insect species, and just a few are dangerous to humans. Certain insects can be dangerous to entire countries or groups of countries [1]. Crops are continuously at risk of being infested or infected. Since pesticides are cheap and easily applied, farmers typically use fast pest control measures like synthetics to protect their animals and crops from infestation. Synthetic pesticides can tend to select

more pesticide-tolerant ones in the population, but it does lead to developing pesticide-resistant pests. To oversimplify and misuse synthetic pesticides in agriculture can damage human health and the environment, even damaging biodiversity Research suggests that constant consumption of synthetic pesticides can cause human illnesses and diseases [2–4]. Furthermore, most synthetic pesticides are not biodegradable, causing soil and groundwater contamination and ozone depletion in the atmosphere. The negative consequences of misuse and overuse of synthetic pesticide have prompted alternative pest control solutions [5–7].

Plants containing bioactive chemicals have been shown to effectively treat a variety of crop pests and human illnesses [8, 9]. Plants like pyrethrum (*Tanacetum cinerariifolium*) and anemone (*Anemone Brizo*) have been shown to have pesticide and malaria-control properties in their insect repellent abilities. Human management of plant problems was practiced, and pesticides were gradually phased out by humans, rather than being replaced by technology and newer, more toxic, but more effective pesticides. They had great success in combating serious plant diseases such as rust and blight, where they are more effective and less toxic, and they became very popular [10]. As a result, natural plant-based products were gradually phased out until recently, when synthetic pesticides threatened human health and the environment [11]. Today, people want food grown with pesticide-free and naturally derived treatments. At the same time, detection of toxic pesticide residues in food and a heightened interest in food safety has prompted agriculture-organic bans of certain chemicals [12, 13].

Continued usage of synthetic insecticides has caused environmental damage, health problems, and loss of species diversity, contamination and biodiversity problems, and an increase in exposure to danger to hazards [14]. Synthetic pesticides have harmed farmers in the export trade, especially in the horticultural sector [15]. Both farmers and exporters in developing countries have lost market and profits if banned pesticides are detected above-defined tolerable level. Alphadime® (alpha-cypermethrin + dimethoate) and Demeton®, for example, are no longer allowed to be used on fresh produce exported to other countries [16, 17].

All the aspects that contribute to the value of botanical pesticides are efficacy, biodegradability, various modes of action, low toxicity, and the accessibility of the source materials. Pre- and pre-harvest times are frequently small [18]. In organic agriculture, where organic food attracts higher costs, botanical pesticides are extensively used [19]. As a result, botanical insecticides are becoming popular since they are safe in crops cultivated for human consumption, and customers willing to pay an organically cultivated premium are more demanded [20]. Many investigations have been carried out with known and still to be utilized species of plants having pesticide characteristics [21, 22]. The commercially available botanical pesticides are examples of pyrethrum (*Tanacetum cinerariifolium*), neem (*Azadirachta indica*), sabadilla, tobacco (*Nicotiana tabacum*) and ryania (*Ryania speciosa*) [23]. In post-harvest pest control, farmers have traditionally utilized plant protection agents, particularly for grain conservation, while they were storing.

The derivatives of plant products that repel, inhibit, or destroy pest are botanical pesticides [24]. Many studies have concentrated on managing pest populations using different botanical pesticides to control insects [25–29]. Plants with pesticide properties can deal with bacteria, fungi, and nematodes; likewise, toxins affect pests. This chapter features data on the chemical composition of botanicals, their pest-control mechanisms, the problems of their use, and the need for them.

*Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100416*

#### **2. Background history**

Plants have been used as pesticides since humans discovered that some plants defend themselves better than others. Before using any other pesticides, people used botanicals to combat pests. They are recorded in hieroglyphic, Chinese, Roman, and Greek antiquities. In India where the neem tree of the Veda, a collection of handwritten archeological Sanskrit written at least 4000 years old, has been mentioned Neem (*Azadirachta indica* Juss.; Meliaceae). Plant compositions for controlling insect pests were mentioned in various writings of the 18th century. In the late 19th century, poisonous plants or minerals were often applied such as oils, tars, sulfocalcic sprinklers, hot water and other technologies [30]. Plant extracts were created as a result of combining empirical and scientific findings.

The first pesticides were made with readily available botanicals and allelochemicals. Since pest insects are easier to identify, they were targeted rather than pathogens. Biopesticides of plant origin have been studied in many recent books and chapters [31, 32].

Plant development as pesticides has two sources of development: First, there are historical and existing uses of plants and their plant constituents in cattle and crop protection methods; and second, the analysis of plant extracts for active ingredients and plant protection. Nicotine activity obtained from tobacco *Nicotiana tabacum, Derris elliptica,* and rotenone from *Leguminosae Lonchocarpus* fall into this group. (ii) systematic sampling of plant families obtained in searching campaigns to detect active molecules, accompanied by biological tests. Such prospecting was done in the 1940s with the help of Rutgers University and Merck, and the outcome was Ryanodine, an alkaloid derived from *Ryania* sp. that was first sold in the United States in 1945 [31].

Four major compounds were widely used before WWII: Alkaloids and *nicotines*, *rotenone*, *pyrethrins,* and vegetable oil. *Nicotines* and alkaloids The usage of these compounds waned due to their toxicity to nicotine organisms or molecular instability (pyrethrum), while chemically synthesized pesticides were marketed during WWII (organochlorides, organophosphates, and carbamates). Their management was cheaper and easier. Until the 1960s, this condition persisted [31].

However, a resurgent interest in botanicals was shown by several demonstrations that the widespread use of chemical pesticides can adversely impact non-target creatures and environmental hazards. Even though a great effort was made in the second half of the twentieth century to search for and produce newly synthesized pesticides, research was conducted on plant-based Biopesticides to increase their stability or discover novel compounds and molecules. An excellent illustration of this is the syntheses is of pyrethroids, pyrethrum-derived synthetic compounds, and neem (*Meliaceae*) in the 20th century.

#### **3. Botanical pesticides sources**

Some botanical pesticides were be obtained from plants extracts essential oils, or combinations. Certain plants are known to be used as botanicals. Rhizomes, bark, leaves, nuts, cloves, fruits, and stems are ingredients. In this context, the application of the plant component would rely on which bioactive compounds are utilized and their levels of abundance within the target cells. Botanical insecticides are manily found in the following plant families: *Myristicaceae*, *Rutaceae*, *Caesalpinaceae*, *Apiaceae*, *Caesalpinaceae*, *Sapotaceae*, *Cupressaceae*, *Piperaceae*, *Solanaceae*, and *Zingiberaceae* [33–35]. Dried and pulverized plant parts are extracted using solvents

#### *Global Decline of Insects*

that promote extraction. After the extraction, the potency is distilled, standardized, and tested in a laboratory or field. Other examples of viable and profitable botanical pesticides have included the neem herb *azadirachtin* (Azadirachta) and the insect repellent pyrethrum (*Tanacetum cinerariifolium*). Many other plants have pesticide properties like Garlic (*allium sativum*), Turmeric (*Curcuma longa*), Rosemary (*Rosmarinus officinalis*), Ginger (*Zingiber officinale*), peppermint, (Mentha piperita), and Thyme (*Thymus vulgaris*) [36, 37].

### **4. Factors that affect botanical pesticides**


Some factors that influence the usage of synthetic botanical pesticides include the pesticide's composition, the active ingredient, method, time, and the quantities used in the mixtures of pesticides, climatic conditions and the time of year of application [38].

Thus, an investigation must also consider possible environmental exposure, indicators of health, and other aspects of risk assessment such as an individual's residency and work background, clinical history, and the prevalence, in the area in which populations are examined of pesticides analyzed in drinking water, land, atmosphere and fresh and processed food. The length of time spent each day, the number of years spent conducting the activity, the type of exposure, the use of protecting facilities, and their geographical closeness to agricultural fields can increase exposure [39].

#### **5. Botanical insecticides made from plants are used in agriculture**

This class of plants is of prime importance as botanical pesticides, herbs, or ornamental plants, can be found in the environment, and a lot of them serve several purposes such as medicines, foodstuffs, accessories, and livestock. They are widely available, and thus very economical, and thus can be easily adopted into agricultural practices. Neem, pyrethrum, and several other non-target species, commercially sold pesticides, are the least harmful, such as insects and fish to none target organisms. They are healthy for both human use and the climate. The relationship between plant-derived pest-control products and pests is based on a biochemical process, which will decrease the likelihood of resistance. Essential oils and essential extracts have a derivative focus on target-specific properties, which help protect bees and other non-target beneficial species from a plant-based risk. Has no or little allelopathic impact on botanical crops Its effectiveness depends

#### *Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100416*

on the plant species, whether the extract is used dry or liquid, solve concentrations, and extraction methods. They have a variety of modes of action including insect resistance, population control, toxicity, and crop modification to meet a variety of different pests' requirements. They interact with behavioral activity, metabolic processes, anatomy, biochemical activities, and certain physiological functions. For example, the terpenoids interfere with phenomenology on moth phenology cells (**Figure 1**) [40–49].

Some scientists have critically examined the acceptance, adoption, and use of botanical pesticides. There must be enough knowledge and proof of the chemistry and effectiveness of botanical pesticides before they can be approved for general use. These provide details on the composition, degradation, durability, and toxicity of the substances [50].

Food safety is enhanced due to the integration of botanicals in agricultural systems, particularly in greenhouses, production; crop productivity is improved through increased and greater market accessibility thanks to that, along with higher prices due to lower pest densities; and guaranteed market access. A certain subset of the consumer population is willing to pay more for organically grown foods, and this opens the door for the botanical pesticides that are profitable for the farmers to expand their market share of that population. **Figure 1** shows the various pathways that can be followed when considering both synthetic and botanicals. Synthetic pesticides contribute to agriculture have the benefit of reducing crop damage and cutting the number of money farmers have to spend on pesticides and increases in sales and profits on their produce. At the same time, these methods must be used judiciously and by skilled staff should be implemented. IPM systems that incorporate botanical pesticides will eliminate the overuse of synthetic pesticides instead of the more common practice of using either of the two. For these reasons, small farmers and family farmers need to take proper precautions and ensure both human and environmental protection; [51, 52].

In this chapter, we'll look at using botanical products to control insects in crop production. From a chemical standpoint, we offer a summary of botanical insecticides and classify their effects on insects.

#### **Figure 1.**

*Differences between botanical and synthetic pesticides with respect to mode of action, use, persistence and effect on ecosystem.*

#### **6. Botanical insecticides types**

#### **6.1 Fatty acids and esters**

The single application of allyl cinnamate can result in highly toxic effects in the S. littoral larval stages of the cabbage whitefly and onion maggot. Ethyl (E, Z, E)-2-decent (Zeder's) was confirmed to be an effective insecticide against the Cimex, while Schmidt et al. [53] were unable to obtain an example for testing. Studies on fat-metered homogenate suggested that fat methyl esters (derived from *Solanum chlamygynidense*) have larvicidal properties for the cinque feed vector, *Culex. quinquefasciatum* [54]. Studies show that saturated and polyunsaturated acids (particularly C8, C9, and C10) work against houseflies, horn flies, and stable flies, respectively a fatty acid mixture (C8910) has shown to be both toxic and refractive to an insecticide-resistant Anopheles mosquito strain. In the literature by Youssef et al. [55], it was found that the larvicidal activity of linoleic acid was active against *S. littorals*, and the larval weight was reduced.

#### **6.2 Glycosides**

In general, plants use cyanogenic glycosides in defense against their herbivores, although some species have been observed to use them for purposes of protection as well as for damage by certain pests. Velu et al. [54], discovered that the digitized glycoside (purple root), sourced from *Digitalis purpura*, *calotropis procera*, was effective against both larval and adult stages of the camel tick ticks, as well as against *Azadirta andneemidos* genuses, while "kinds, in combination with *hyaliqueinul* bearing Neem oil and *Proxeebrin acedra* on a bioassay, showed digitoxin from *purpurean digitalids* could hold against various species of camel, while proven in addition to all lar and adult stages of *Hyommadromesis rajene* had the proper concentration. Additionally, it discovered that Viscin-2 and Vtsin, which serve as growth-inhibiting photo plastic herbicides for insects, also prevent the larva of the cotton aphid species from gaining weight. Have acridglycides (from Bothidae and Mucroneidae), they do not possess the protein insect binding of gypsophilla (*L. dispar*, *N. coenia*, and, to be more precise, juneids (*Lymriidae* and *Mucranidae*) do). Since cyanogenic glycosides are found in cassava or other plants, it's also believed that they are components of these plants' plant defense mechanisms. Like most stored-product insecticides, they are effective against: they are effective against both pests and infestations. Cyanohydroarilase has pesticide properties to the lepidozinans (particularly in indoor areas), which means that it is useful as alternative pest control and can be applied to the soil as fumarate [55]. This was discovered by (in this study) on species from the genus of ants of Cassia, which possess a *malathion peroxide* (antimalaria) and are frequently used in malarious regions as antimalarial/ insecticidal activity. The larvae found in *A. gigas*, chinch Bugs from Glycinequa have larvicide activity against chinch and malaria visas vectors. The effectiveness of juvenile hormone treatments in pest control is outstanding in recent experiments [56].

#### **6.3 Flavonoids**

Flavonoids have the potential to be effective in pest-control measures. Flavonoids are important in protecting plants from insect pests and herbivores that feed on plants. Plants are protected from insect pests by flavonoids and isoflavonoids, influencing their behavior, growth, and development. *Pinus banksiana's rutin* and quercetin-3-glucoside inhibit the growth of *Lymantria. dispar* and increase its mortality. Tobacco armament (*Spodoptera litura*) death rates of peanuts enriched in quercetin and rutin glycosides increased. In *Nilaparvata lugens* and herbivores,

*Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100416*

three flavone glucosides present in rice impede insect digestion [55]. Insecticide activity against *Callosobruchus. maculatus* grubs, flavonoid glycosides derived from *Tephrosia purpuria* were exhibited. Two further forms of flavonoids protecting plants against insects are isoflavonoids and proanthocyanidins. For instance, *narengine procyanidine* suppresses *Aphis craccivora* and herbivores' growth [55]. Quercetin/azadirachtin insecticide can be a safe, efficient insecticide that increases the functioning and non-toxicity of *Euphaedra orientalis* [57]. It is also less environmentally damaging because it is quickly biodegradable. *Acyrthosiphone pisum* was identified by Goawska, Sprawka, Ukasik and Goawski [58], as polyphene-naringenin flavonol (*flavanone naringenin* and *flavonol quercetin*) as a pesticide against Pea aphid. (Aphididae, Hemiptera).). *Tagetes erecta* and *Tagetes patula* contain toxic plant chemicals (flavonoids) that can support their usage in the form of natural insecticides. Quercetin, Kaempferol and RCO, tricin, apigenin + RCO, apigenin and apigenin are efficient insecticides.

#### **6.4 Alkaloid**

Alkaloids are vital to insect control as they are among the most effective natural insecticides in nature. The authors concluded that pyridine alkaloids from castor bean proved effective against the malaria-carrier mosquito species *Anopheles gambiae*. The oil extracted from the leaves of *Ruta chaloderma* powder and quinone herbals had larvicidal and antifedi parasiticidal activity against caterpillars such as the larvae of the coastal *helio thopygea* butterfly. Antifeedant and larvicidal effects were found in the pergularia root alkaloids extract, that regular antifeedant and larvicide did Praline and piperidine alkaloids have activity against mosquito larvae *Arachis hypogaea* alkaloid has a larvicidal function [58, 59].

#### **6.5 Nicotine**

Nicotine, the addictive component of tobacco, is a tranquilizer in tobacco plants (*Nicotiana Tobacco*) and other Nicotiana species. Heavy doses because of respiratory paralysis are also exceedingly toxic. Nicotine is a ganglion cholinergic agonist with a wide spectrum of pharmacological effects mediated via autonomy, supranational medulla, neuromuscular crossover, and brain bonding to receptors [60].

#### **6.6 Essential oils**

Regnault-Roger and Philogne [61] state that natural chemical pesticides are plant extracts that are excellent alternatives to biological or synthetic pesticides. Additionally, chemical pesticides are difficult to use because of insect resistance to synthetic compounds, which has resulted in billions of dollars of food production losses annually. In addition, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) accepted that botanical pesticides (essential oils), which are protected from non-target and cross-and multi-resistant to insects, are more likely to cause ozone depletion, neurotoxicity, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, and mutagens [61].

The rising use of plant-based insecticides by organic growers has increased aromatics in essential oils extraction due to the rise in plant-based products and healthconscious consumers. These ingredients are used to kill and repel insects [60–62]. According to some researchers, essential oils are effective against bedbugs, ants, moths, and particularly the predatory, voracious, and especially larvae of the Gypsy moth, some types of insects. One observes that Peppermint oil is effective against Ants, Flies, Nips, and *Varroa most* stumptica; additionally, proves that it is effective against Both *Callospora*, *Tribrix*, and *Varrota* powdery locust. *Trichosomyia of uremia*

larvae has Larvicide effective against *Aedes aegypti* mosquitoes and *C. Quinquefasciatus* [58, 61–64].

Nepetalactone is a very good active element for the repellent of mustaches, bees, and other flying insects in Catnips (*Nepeta cataria*). In repelling mosquitoes, it is more effective than DEET. The *Aedes aegypti* mosquito, which distributes the yellow fever virus, is highly effective. In contrast, *Zingiber* Official Rhizome and *Piper Cubeba* berries oil exhibited insecticide and anti-favoring activities in *Tribolium castaneum* and *Sitophilus oryzae*. *Tagetes* species oil exhibits an anti-insect effect against *Ceratitis capitata* and *Triatoma infestans*. *Melaleuca alternifolia's* fumigant toxicity to *Sitophilus spp*. Healthy cockroach repellents are rosemary, oregano, yarrow, eucalyptus and mint oil. *Supella longipalpa* is an oregano oil-killing parasite. It detected that insecticidal in larvae from the pine procession moth, *Thaumetopoea pityocampa*. *Laurus nobilis* essential oil has also been discovered toxic against *rhyzopertha dominica*, and *T. castaneum*. *Lavandula hybrida*, *Rosmarinus bureinalis* and *Eucalyptus globulus* have killed the adults of *Acanthoscelid obtectos*. *Tagetes minuta* essential oil has also been Acaricidal and repellant for *cochliomyia macellaria*. Basil oils contain eugenol, a potent anti-mosquito, and linalool, a harmful substance to *Bruchid zabrotes fasciatus* and other pests. *Lasioderma serricorn* repels *zingiber zerumbet's* essential oil. *Juniperus procera* essential oil has been proven to help repel *Anopheles arabiensis* malaria mosquito**.** All of the instances include terpinene-4-ol, 1,8-cineol, verbenone, and field horn. Anti-piling insects, insecticides and mosquito bites in adults were prevented by Eukalyptus oil, *Aedes aegypti* larvae have poisonous substances of *Eucalyptus globules*. Burning *Eucalyptus citriodoric* sheets are used as a mosquito repellant in Africa. Moreover, the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, USA) advocated utilizing the West Nile virus to protect it from neurological disease and even from death and transmitted by mosquitos using the lemon *eucalyptus* oil (p-menthane-3,8-diols, PMD, as an active ingredient) [51–54, 58, 60, 62, 65–68].

#### **6.7 Spinosads**

Spinosad was originally insular in Actinomycete soil, the *Saccharopolyspora Spinosa,* and combines the spinosyns A and *D. Spinosads* can be used against a large variety of moths, leaf miners, and foliage-feeding beetles. Spinosads possess novel target sites, which are distinct from other insecticides' nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, which leads to dysfunction of the neuromuscular system, which disrupts the acetylcholine neurotransmission [69, 70].

#### **6.8 Sabadilla**

Sabadilla is a Venezuelan seed and is a source of schistocyanatelene. It is among the most dangerous recorded botanicals, with a 5,000 mg/kg LD50 for mammals. Sabadilla assists in getting a smooth surface but can also act as a stomach poison. Reinforced insecticides are similar to the other type of botanical insecticides in that they are long-lasting, but they have less residual action in sunlight and break down quickly (rainfall). Sabadilla impairs sensory, motor, and respiratory nerve functions paralyze and kills [71]. Caterpillars, leafhoppers, thrips, stink bugs, and squash bugs are all susceptible to it.

#### **6.9 Rotenone**

It is derivable from the two plants' roots. Both are legumes from East India, Malaya, and Southern America, *Lonchocarpus* sp. and *Derris* sp. The toxic botanical *Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100416*

insecticides of rotenone are moderately toxic and the DL50 to mammals is 132 mg/ kg [66]. Indeed, rotenone, two widely used synthetic derived insecticides, is more harmful to mammals than carbaryl and malathion. Also, fish is highly toxic to rotenone [53]. The botanical insecticide is a poison of the stomach and touch. It takes several days to destroy pests, but the pests avoid feeding almost instantly. Rotenone acts slower than most other botanic insecticides. The air and sunlight decay quickly. Rotenone prevents the breathing of complex I by electron transport. In many insects and mite pests, Rotenone exhibits a wide range of behavior, such as feeding beetles, caterpillars, lice, mosquitos, fleas and flames [72].

#### **6.10 Ryania**

Ryania's active ingredients come from the roots and woody stems of the Trinidadian plant Ryania species [71]. Ryania is a low-toxicity mammalian pathogen with a median lethal dose (LD50) of 750 mg/kg that acts as a touch and stomach poison. Among the botanical insecticides, it has a long residual effect. This botanical insecticide works by binding to calcium channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which especially affects muscles. Calcium ions flood the cells, resulting in rapid death [72]. Ryania is most effective against caterpillars (such as the codling moth and corn earworm). But, it is also effective against various other insects and mites, including the potato beetle, lace bugs, aphids, and squash bug [73].

#### **7. Repellents**

A botanical pesticide has a repulsive quality to prevent an insect pest from the treated materials and protect a crop with a minimal environmental impact. Since it promotes olfactory or other receptors to remove the insect pest from the treated materials. Botanical pesticides are considered safe in pesticide control since they do not leave any pesticide residue and make it safe for humans, the climate, and the ecology. Essential *Ziziphora tenuior*, *Myrtus communis*, *Achillea wilhelmsii* and *Mentha. piperita* oils have repellent effects on human floats. Due to the repellant activity of essential oils on *Tribolium confusum*, their efficacy in organic food safety for *M. piperita*, *Rosemary officinalis* and *Coriandrum sativum* oils. It found that *T. castaneum* and *L. serricumis* essential oils, both of which can remain dormant for several years, were susceptible to pesticides with good residual activity. One repellent's efficacy is to one variety of insect is likely attributable to the non-persistent insect oil sample, and the other is too different ones may be due to anti-insect mechanisms. Essential oils of Cymboplocnsus and Tmesisohia were effective in attracting Phlebotomcous mosquitoes, and an Arsenophon were unsuccessful in keeping them away from their target different types of repellents influence the efficacy, dosage, use of differing concentrations, human health and attractiveness as targets, insect species, and repellent qualities and insect response vary, as a lot, all of which affect the amount of perspiration loss, and abrasion as well as sensitivity, and insects have numerous alternatives to make it hard to get rid of also had a noticeable activity to repel the mosquitos, namely Amblyomma *celtisagrus Origanum* had more that Origanum no doubt recognized as an adjuvant activity, I wonder if these studies were conducted under similar conditions (L.). Carvacrol and thyme were used to ward off infections caused by Americanum and Americanum treated rats could avoid infections. Since carvone and thymol in Carvacrol-rich essential oil is associated with reduced mosquito and tick abundance, it may have potential as a pest control substance [70, 71].

Different natural fatty acids with certain acetylcholinesterase and octopaminergic receptor effects have insecticide characteristics. A saturated mixture of fatty acids made up of octanoic acid (also called caprylic acid), nonanoic acid, and decanoic acid (sometimes referred to as capric acid) were repelled from Horn Flies, known together to be 'C8910 acids' (C8, C9, and C10 mixture). C8910 acids, which dissuade horn from feeding by more than 85%, strongly repelled the pest. More than 50 percent of the animals have shown C8910 acids to elicit feeding deterrent and anti-feeding. Cuminyl alcohol, cumin aldehyde and a-phellandrene Monoterpenoids as well as oleic, linoleic and methyl oleate naturally occurring synergized with DEET and cuminyl alcohol, cumin-aldehyde and phellandrene Monoterpenoids and [72, 73].

#### **8. Antifeedant/deterrents for feeding**

Botanical pesticides make the treated materials unattractive or unpalatable to insects, preventing or disrupting feeding. Insects dwell on the treated material indefinitely until they die of starvation [73] found that *M. alternifolia* oil and its chemical compounds had *helicoverpa armigera* Hubner antifeedant capabilities. *Dinoderus porcellus* may have been caused to die by tannins, saponins, flavonoids, steroids, and alkaloids in the leaf extract *Khaye senegalensis*. The primary constituent of neem, azadirachtin, was discovered as the main insecticide element**.** It operates as an antimicrobial, repellant, and repulsive, making insects sterile by blocking oviposition and inhibiting the formation of males' sperm. It observed that the impact of 1,8-cineol on termites in Galangal is antifeedant, repellent and poisonous. *Gliricidium sepium* methanol excerpts are rich in terpenoids, coumarins and phenols. That indicates that some of the plant's active components prevent larvae from feeding, while others damage the hormonal balance or make the meal taste terrible. These active chemicals can prevent eating by acting directly on the chemosensilla larvae.

#### **9. Toxicity**

Some botanical pesticides are poisonous to stored-product insects, resulting in their demise. Since mitochondrial poison blocks the electron transport chain and inhibits energy production, rotenone is classified as a toxic substance. Since it must be consumed to be effective as an insecticide, it is a stomach poison. Against granary weevil adults, the essential oil of *Lavandula angustifolia* showed strong fumigant and contact toxicity. Furthermore, granary weevil orientation to an enticing host substrate can be disrupted by heavy repellent action. Fumigant toxicity was demonstrated against the stored grain pest *Callosobruchus Chinensis*. Cinnamon, clove, rosemary, bergamot, and Japanese mint essential oils all showed promise as potential natural fumigants or repellents for pulse beetle control. Adult and egg mortality for head lice was linked to the use of (geraniol, citronellol, 1,8-cineole, linalool, −terpineol, nonyl alcohol, thymol, menthol, carvacrol, and eugenol) essential oils. *Thymus vulgaris* essential oil was found to have important activity against *Culex pipiens*. It found that the essential oil of *Echinops grijsii* roots and isolated thiophenes have a lot of potential for controlling *Aedes albopictus*, *Anopheles sinensis*, and *C. pipiens* pallens larvae and could be used in the hunt for fresh, safer, and more efficient natural larvicides. Toxicity and repellant activity of the zerumbet (L.) Smith (Zingiberaceae) essential oil that contains caryophyllene component against cigarette beetles (*L. serricorne*). Extracts from *Heracleum platytaenium*

*Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100416*

and Humulus, as well as insecticides, have great potential in the administration of *Leptinotarsa decemlineata* larvae. The toxicity of limonene, linalool, and pinene on adult Mediterranean fruit flies. DNA damage caused by altering enzyme systems (acetylcholinesterase, acid phosphate, alkaline phosphate, lactate dehydrogenase and phenol) was identified after treatment with essential oils *Citrus aurantium*, *Eruca sativa*, *Z. officinale* and *Origanum majorana*, *R. Dominica*, *T. vulgaris* oil has the highest insecticidal toxicity, followed by *R. graveolen*, *C. aurantium*, *L. petersonii* and *A. millefolium* oils. The insecticidal toxicity to *P. shantung* geneses nymphs of *T. Vulgaris* oil has been 1,3 times greater compared to adults of *P. shantung genesis*. The difference in plant-derived oils insecticidal toxicity may be further clarified by species-specific reactions to plant species, plant compounds, adult and height *P. shantung genesis* and nymph weights [61, 63, 64, 66–68, 72].

#### **10. Development inhibitors and growth retardants**

Botanical pesticides harmed insect growth and development, decreasing the weight of larvae, pupae, and adults and lengthening the stages of development. Plant derivatives also reduce the survival rate of larvae and pupae, and adults. Azadirachtin and neem seed oil both showed an 80 and 77% increase in aphid nymph mortality while the development time of those who survived in adulthood was increased. Many botanical insecticides have demonstrated an impact on the development, growth and adult growth of insects [15, 20, 25, 30].

#### **11. Attractants**

Insect attractants are botanical chemicals that cause insects to travel in a direction toward their source. The effect is on gustating (smelling) and olfactory (smelling) receptors or sensors. Cruciferae seeds isothiocyanates, molasses, and bark terpenes, together with pheromones, are natural attractions for certain Cruciferaea insects and bark beets. *Psila rosae* and Lepidoptera draw from *Araujia serisoferae's* onion propyl mercapto N and *Araujia serisofera's* phenyl-acetaldehyde is derived from Araujia flowers. Insect attractants can be utilized for the monitoring of insects in three ways. In lustful insects, traps or poison apples are covered with insecticide and insects distract from the typical matching, food aggregations or oviposition. They do not damage insects and hence do not interfere with the ecology. They are employed due to mis-alimentation or the creation of unfertilized eggs, leading insecticide to improper oviposition sites, diminishing their population. It is not the only check measure utilized in an integrated control program [45].

#### **12. Future role of botanicals insecticide**

What function in plant defense and other uses will botanical pesticides play in the near future? Botanical products play a larger role than currently in developed countries; even in organic food processing, they are difficult to imagine. Organic production in Europe and North America is expected to increase by 8 to 15 percent annually (National Research Council 2000). Botanical products are among the least competitive in those markets. Microbial insecticides and spinosads have proved to be safe and cost-effective even there, however. Botanical products can be better positioned than assumed to be stand-alone items as items in crop protectors, especially since *Bacillus thuringiensis* and spinosad are resistant to diamond moth

abuse. Botanical products face tremendous competitive challenges in traditional agriculture for synthetic insecticides, such as 'reduced risk' neonicotinoids of the latest generation. Due to the decreased use of biopesticides (from 652 to 472 t) in California, the use of reduced-risk pesticides grew more than thrice between 1998 and 2003 (from 138 t to 483 t).

Botanicals are also declining, representing less than 1 percent of California's biopesticide use. Overall, the botanicals are hard to assume that they are best applied in wealthy countries in public health (mosquitoes and cockroaches) and consumers (home and garden). In underdeveloped nations, where farmers cannot afford conventional pesticides and where the traditional use of plants and plant derivatives to store the safety of products is well established, the true usefulness of botanical pesticides is more acknowledged. Although traditional pesticides (for example, through government aid) are available to farmers, a lack of literacy and protection equipment leads to thousands of poisonings every year**.**

Traditional West African plants that provide postharvest insect protection have received more attention. Some of the most effective plants employed are widely known for their active substances (e.g., Tephrosia rotenoids, Nicotiana nicotine, Securidaca methyl salicylate, and Ocimum eugenol), while others are volatile, which are a natural spray that destroys adult plagues and their descendants. Those materials are relatively stable in their current form, according to at least one evaluation.

Certain plants can effectively preserve grain against storage pests in developing nations. Many of these plants have a tropical spectrum and are possibly cultivable in underdeveloped nations. Pesticide efficacy in plant adoption is, however, only one element. The logistics of the processing, preparation, and consumption of botanical products will reduce their use [72]. Maybe, rather than screening new plants and insulate new bioactive compounds that pick up our interests, are not likely to be useful, this scientific community needs to focus its efforts on growing and applying existing botanicals**.**

#### **13. Conclusion**

The natural environment offers a multitude of different plant species which have helped develop cures for human, animal, and plant sicknesses. The use of synthetic pesticides is often questioned on environmental health, strict regulation of their use, and strict control on pesticide residues in agricultural produce demand are all required precautions to ensure that must be taken. Pesticides produced synthetically are still hazardous to both environmental health, animals, and human beings subject to toxic or otherwise hazardous chemicals that remain on the ground or in the atmosphere after their use. Concerning their regenerative nature and contribution to human and environmental protection, botanicals must be reconsidered and their effectiveness in controlling crop pests.

Large-scale agriculture could be practiced in marginal lands where food is not in abundance to escape the competition with source plant extracts. The development of such crops in semi-arid areas could benefit communities. Rhizomes and herbaceous plants may be grown in areas under a tree canopy of shortness but with minimum disturbance to the trees. Biochemical compounds that have pesticide properties in plants are produced through biotechnological collaborations.

The natural presence of insect-based plant compounds, as a precious alternative to synthetic or chemical pesticides, are botanical insecticides used for the protection of crops from negative or side effects in conventional insecticides. The chemical features of botanical pesticides, notably repellents, feeding dissuasive

*Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100416*

agents, toxicants, growth retardants and chemosterilants and attributes (essentials, flavonoids, alkaloids, glycoside, ester, and fatty acids), and their impact on insects in various forms. Instead of synthetic insecticides, botanical insecticides must be used, and organic cultivators in developed countries accept certain botanical insecticides. We, therefore, advocate the use and encouragement of botanical insecticidal products and research into new sources of botanical insecticides are being conducted.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The author is grateful to Research Scientist Hewa Lunuwilage Chamila Darshanee (Sri Lanka) for reviewing this chapter in the early stage. The authors would like to thank the Science and Technology Development (STDF), Egypt entitled: "Ecofriendly Pesticides against Pests of Medical, Veterinary, and Agricultural Importance" ID: 41608.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Notes/thanks/other declarations**

We are thankfull to staff of department of agriculture for their support and encouragement.

### **Author details**

Nazeer Ahmed1 \*, Mukhtar Alam1 , Muhammad Saeed1 , Hidayat Ullah1 , Toheed Iqbal2 , Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi3 , Kiran Shahjeer4 , Rafi Ullah1 , Saeed Ahmed<sup>5</sup> , Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed6 , Hanem Fathy Khater7 and Muhammad Salman8

1 Department of Agriculture, University of Swabi, Anbar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

2 Faculty of Plant Protection, Department of Entomology, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

3 Faculty of Science, Dpartment of Biology, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia

4 Department of Zoology, Abdulwali Khan University, Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

5 Agricultural Research Center, Londrina State University, Londrina, Brazil

6 Faculty of Sciences in Kurma, Department of Science, Taif University, Mecca, Saudi Arabia

7 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Benha University, Toukh, Egypt

8 Department of Entomology, Faculty of Crop Protection, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, KP-Pakistan

\*Address all correspondence to: dr.nazeer@uoswabi.edu.pk

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100416*

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#### **Chapter 7**

## Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful against Insects and Pests?

*Toheed Iqbal, Nazeer Ahmed, Kiran Shahjeer, Saeed Ahmed, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Hanem Fathy Khater and Reham Fathey Ali*

#### **Abstract**

In low-income countries, subsistence and transitional farms frequently use botanical insecticides. The shortage or high cost of industrial pesticides also prompts their use. Botanical insecticides are also prescribed by agricultural and development programs and certain development organizations. However, since insecticidal proof of their effectiveness and protection might not be sufficient or usable, this may be called into question. While insecticidal botanicals have been extensively studied, there has yet to be a fusion that focuses especially on the domestic synthesis of biopesticides that work infield and storage effectively. In this chapter, we look at the effectiveness of botanicals (neem, garlic, and essential oil) that are used as insecticides. In addition, this chapter also focuses on research carried out on the use of these essential oils as insecticides. Processes that use variable amounts of ingredients and concentrations and ratios of active ingredients can have varying impacts on the efficacy of plant-based biological insecticides. Finally, using home-made insecticides would reduce the losses that occur during food production and enable us to use environment-friendly pest management methods.

**Keywords:** garlic, neem, essential oil, repellent, phytotoxicity, safety, economics

#### **1. Introduction**

In global terms, yield losses due to arthropods, diseases, and weeds are estimated to an approximately 35% of the total agricultural products. Yield losses in developing regions with limited pest management options may exceed up to 50% [1]. There are many adverse interactions between insects and plants, like insects, pests, and pathogens, leading to total or complete crop failure [2]. Crop protection has played a crucial role in ensuring food security, preserving crop productivity, and rising yields. More recently, the use of integrated pest management for pest control has become more prevalent in developed countries, but the continued use of pesticides to manage pest epidemics remains prominent [1, 3]. Increased use of synthetic pesticides is observed in the developed and transitional countries [4]. Many farmers

in developing countries lack access to synthetic pesticides [5]. Biological controls and botanical pesticides (in this case, plant products) are frequently unavailable or expensive. They are used in alternative ways, like inter-crop pest control rather than pesticide sprays to eliminate crops [6, 7].

Botanicals were used in agricultural pest control in China two thousand years ago and Greece and India before they became widely accepted [1]. Traditional botanical pest control for crop protection or storage remains widely distributed today among traditional and subsistence farmers [1, 4]. In some areas of Zimbabwe and Uganda, up to 100% of farmers use botanical products [5, 8]. Globally, there have been reports that more than 2500 plant species from 235 families have biological pest control activities [9, 10]. Notably, in many farmer surveys, using various botanical substances to control insect pests is underlined, with 10 botanicals used by farmers worldwide [5, 11].

Given the limited availability of synthetic pesticides and the prohibitive cost for farmers and transitional growers, botanicals are often a viable alternative to synthetic pesticides in the developing and subsistence agriculture sector [1]. Botanical preparations are vigorously promoted in the advisory materials of many government agricultural departments. As a result, plant-wise national extension partners, led by the CABI, sometimes use homemade pesticide products in their guidelines and extension materials (www.plantwise.org).

Different insecticidal activities such as toxicity, feeding deterrence, and repellency against other insect pests are possessed by plant secondary metabolites such as terpenoids, alkaloids, and phenols. The protection of plant species against insect herbicides has been used for many years in botanical insecticides, such as extracts and essential oils. Natural enemies are sometimes killed or injured by synthetic insecticides [1, 5, 12]. Additionally, plant extracts tend to have multiple actions and low toxicity, making them safer for non-target species. However, another significant advantage of botanical is that they tend to depend rather than on one active ingredient on closely related "suites" of active substances. It could either prevent or delay the spread of pest population resistance. Biopesticides have been utilized as a long way to keep pests under control until synthetic pesticides have replaced plant extracts. There is currently only about 1 per cent of the global use of pesticides for botanical insecticides, but that number increases due to greater attention on this class of products [13–15]. Plant extracts from common weed species are frequently produced in developing countries that are accessible and obtain labour as the only cost. However, Botanical pest management is a less expensive alternative to insecticides [16, 17].

The suitability of botanical recommendation and use can be questioned to control pests. Over the past decades, the evidence for the use of botanicals generally has been deemed consistent, but it must be re-evaluated to assess their effectiveness. Some botanicals used to control pesticides may be without active ingredients, a waste of time for little growers. Moreover, results may be unpredictable because of varying levels of active ingredients, concentrations in the used plant material, and differences in the preparing methods [7]. Despite this, their toxicity to nontargets has not been proven. While there is rising scientific evidence that some plant pesticides are less toxic to non-target species than synthetic pesticides, there is also evidence that some non-target species or ecosystems may be threatened by other botanicals, livestock, or the general environment [14]. Despite their significant prevalence, however, it is impossible to ignore the use of botanicals for pest control. There have been extensive research trials in the use of traditional pesticides and control methods conducted over the last several decades. However, a comprehensive scientific understanding of the use of conventional botanicals for insecticides, including those used by subsistence and transition farmers, is lacking.

Three distinct botanicals were investigated in this chapter to see either they worked against insects or pests, including their scientific proof for their efficacy *Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100418*

and reliability was discovered. The findings indicate the potential and limitations as alternatives to pesticides of selected botanical insecticides. The safety and well-being of humans are briefly mentioned, as well as considerations of cost and practicality.

#### **2. Botanical insecticides**

A substance employed to destroy pests that cause damage or obstacle to desired crops, shrubs, trees, timber, and plant growth is called insecticide. Pesticides that usually remain in nature and/end up take a long time in the body or tissue pose significant problems for humans and the environment for a wide range of environmental health and safety. Many pesticides are non-specific, so they can kill or be responsible for the death of either beneficial or destructive organisms [5].

#### **2.1 Definition of botanical insecticide**

One of the naturally occurring chemicals found in plants is referred to as botanical pesticides. Nature-oriented pesticides can be used as an alternative to synthetic formulations, but they are usually claimed to be more toxic to humans. Some of the most lethal carcinogenic substances, like deadly toxins, develop quickly and thrive in nature [18].

#### **2.2 Mode of action of botanical insecticides**

Mode of action is defined as a specific functional or physiological change in a living organism resulting from its exposure to a substance. The affected biological steps, enzymes, or proteins of the living organism are usually included in the mode of action. Most others classify pesticides as controlled, physical, or chemical characteristics; the mode of action primarily refers to how the pesticide interrupts an organism's biological processes [1, 18].

#### **2.3 What is the significance of the mode of action?**

Scientists must understand the mode of action to increase the quality and longterm viability of a product used in pest management plans. To better understand how pesticides function, it is critical to understand how the targeted system of the pest is working. Understanding how humans and other systems operate also helps us to control pests effectively. It also needs to learn the modes of action of the pesticides, which will help to prevent resistance to the specific pesticide(s) [18].

#### **3. Botanical insecticide efficacy**

#### **3.1 Garlic (***Allium sativum***)**

Sulfur-containing compounds produced by the enzymatic degradation of allicin are thought to be responsible for garlic's pesticide activity. There have been laboratory trials that have demonstrated that garlic extracts have insecticidal and acaricidal properties. They can also be used as control agents for Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and Hemiptera insect species [19–22]. Garlic aqueous extracts were found to control Hemiptera pests, Lepidoptera pests, and mites to varying degrees in field application trials [23–26]. Other research suggests that homemade pesticides based on garlic could control fruit flies on watermelons and mites on tomatoes [27, 28].

#### **3.2 Neem (***Azadirachta indica***)**

Insects are affected by azadirachtin in two ways. At the physiological stage, azadirachtin prevents the prothoracic gland from producing and releasing molting hormones (ecdysteroids), resulting in immature insects, which causes incomplete ecdysis. A related mechanism of action is responsible for adult female insect sterility. Furthermore, azadirachtin is a powerful antifeedant for a variety of insects. It is thought that Schmutterer [29] was the first to discover the problem of swarming locusts in the desert. Still, neem trees had covered the area before then, so it was only found later that they destroyed all the local vegetation except for imported neem. Because of its exceptionally antifeedant activity in the desert locust, azadirachtin was first isolated and remained the most potent antifouling agent discovered to date. In the United States, neem has quickly become the new model for producing botanical pesticides [1].

The limonoids in neem are thought to be responsible for their insecticidal properties. Although azadirachtin is thought to be the most active compound, other limonoids may enhance its activity and activeness and inhibit resistance buildup [30]. Commercial neem extracts are commonly used to monitor a wide variety of insects and mites. Commercial neem-based products' insecticidal and acaricidal properties have been extensively demonstrated [18, 30].

Blatt dean, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, and Thysanoptera pests have been successfully controlled with aqueous extracts produced at home using neem plant content (unformulated oil, seed cake, leaves, and seeds) [23, 31–36]. In various trials against Lepidoptera pests, aqueous neem extracts were found to be effective. Patil and Nandihalli [37] were the only researchers to demonstrate the effectiveness of aqueous neem extracts in field applications; extracts or an oil emulsion is used to combat mite pests. Both preparations decreased mite population but did not affect yield. It has been confirmed that neem oil is effective against fruit flies targeting watermelon, but no statistics have been given.

Coleopteran pests were controlled successfully and constantly in storage trials through ground neem plant material [27, 37–40]. The effectiveness of the ground neem is supported by participatory farm studies carried out by Paul et al. [41] and other earlier studies [5, 7, 9].

#### **3.3 Mode of action**

Biologically active components are difficult to pin down in neem products, as they are found in complex mixtures. Studies show that neem has insecticidal, repulsive, anti-ovipositional, growth-regulating, and toxic properties in various forms of insects. Neem serves as a natural insect repellent, preventing insects from starting to eat. It acts as a feeding deterrent, making insects avoid eating if there is a presence of deterrent factors, as part of the first "taste" ingesting food at some points (might be due to secondary hormonal or physiological effects of the deterrent substance). Neem has been proven to be strong in halting the growth of most insects through the means of disrupting chitin synthesis. Due to species' susceptibility, the effects of neem can vary widely [41].

#### **4. Essential oils**

Secondary metabolites produced by plants are superior to synthetic or synthetic pesticides as viable alternatives to a primary pest control strategy [42]. Furthermore, insecticide resistance to synthetic pesticides resulted in significant food losses due to chemical failure in pests. As a result, annual economic losses in *Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100418*

the billions of dollars occur worldwide [1, 5]. Furthermore, essential oils are also considered safer than synthetic pesticides by the FDA due to non-target neurotoxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic effects, as well as insect multi- and cross-resistance [43]. Their popularity in organic farmers and the environmentally aware consumer has considerably increased as insecticides in essential oils derived from aromatic plants. They have repellent, antifeedant, inhibitors to oviposition and growth, ovicides, and growth-reducing effects in several insects [42–44]. Essential oils possess an exciting impact of larvicide on larvae, insecticide activity, abusive ants, cockroaches, bedbugs, moths, fluid headlice, and toxic to termites (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae, gipsy moth). *Mentha piperita* oil repels anti-*Callosobruchus maculatus*, flies, lice, moth, and *Tribolium castrum*. *Trachysperm* sp. oil contains larvicidal effect against mosquito species *Aedes aegypti* and *Culex quinquefasciatus* [45–47].

#### **4.1 Chemistry of essential oils**

The chemistry of volatile elements in essential oils can be categorized into four major groups: benzene derivatives, hydrocarbons, terpene, and other miscellaneous compounds. Monoterpenoids constitute 90% of the essential oil, and they are the most representative molecules that allow for a wide variety of different structures. There are 10 hydrocarbons, or their related compounds, that is, cyclic alcohols (e.g., isopulegol, menthol, terpineol), acyclic alcohols (e.g., geraniol, linalool, citronellol), bicyclic alcohols (e.g., verbenol, borneol), ketones (menthone, carvone, thujone), phenols (e.g., carvacrol, thymol), acids (e.g., chrysanthemum acid), oxides (cineole), and aldehydes (citronellal, citral). Terpenes are the major group, while aromatic and aliphatic constituents are the other minor groups. Terpenes are mostly monoterpenes (C10) as well as sesquiterpenes (C15), but hemiterpenes (C5), diterpenes (C20), triterpenes (C30), and tetraterpenes are also available (C40). Phenylpropane-derived aromatic compounds are less prevalent than terpenes, for example, aldehyde: cinnamaldehyde; methylenedioxy compounds: apiole, myristicin, safrole; phenols: chavicol, eugenol; alcohol: cinnamic alcohol; methoxy derivatives: anethole, elemicin, estragole, methyl eugenols [48].

#### **4.2 Extraction of essential oil**

The oil composition varies widely, mainly depending on the way that was used to isolate it. Essential oils have a different chemical composition, depending on the type of molecules extracted and the number of molecules found within the mix. Usually, steam distillation under high pressure is used to separate essential oils using the clevenger device. Furthermore, the oil may be chemically altered during distillation due to saponification, isomerization, and other reactions due to distillation. Essential oils are extracted *via* different methods: solvent extraction, first through percolation, and then through a combination of double or single distillation or supercritical carbon dioxide. The quality, quantity, and composition of the extract obtained from the various plant materials vary with each climate and the design of the soil, organ of plants, age, and vegetative cycle stage [44].

#### **4.3 Essential oil mode of action**

Most monoterpene has a cytotoxic effect on plant and animal cells, disrupting respiration and permeability, depleting Golgi and mitochondria, and decreasing respiration and production. Similarly, many serve as chemicals to animals and insects as well, and they are volatile. Also, most monoterpenoids act as some short-signal molecules, thus making them suitable as synonyms and alarm pheromones. Care must be taken with the number of essential oils used to destroy insects and their modes of action because of possible health hazards to humans and other vertebrates. There is still a lack of understanding about the monophenoid target sites and mode of action, and only a few studies have investigated this [1, 18, 44, 48].

#### *4.3.1 As insecticide*

Although insects are not known well for the physiological effects of essential oils, treating them with essential oils or their constituents causes symptoms that provide us information about the mode of action as a neurotoxin. Linalool, a monoterpenoid, has influenced ion transport and acetylcholine esterase release in insects [18].

Octopamine is a neurotransmitter, neurohormone, and circulating neurohormone—neuromodulator with many biological functions in insects [1]. Based on pharmacological parameters, octopamine works by interacting with at least two receptor groups, dubbed octopamine-1 and octopamine-2. As the octopamine system is disrupted, the nervous system of insects is wholly destroyed. As a result, the insect octopaminergic mechanism is a bio-rational priority for pest control (**Figure 1**).

Since vertebrates do not have octopamine receptors, essential oils have a solid mammalian selectivity as insecticides. The octopaminergic mechanism of insects is influenced by various important oil compounds [48].

In the cloned cells of *Drosophila melanogaster* and *Periplaneta americana*, Enan [46] found that eugenol, as octopamine, has increased intracellular levels of calcium and is mediated by octopamine receptors. In addition, eugenol toxicity is found to be increased in mutant *D. melanogaster* with no octopamine synthesis, indicating that the octopaminergic system mediates the toxicity. The insecticidal effects of eugenol are thought to be due to these cellular changes caused by the compound [48]. In *Helicoverpa armigera*, abdominal epidermal tissue [49] came to the same conclusion, suggesting that essential oil constituents can compete for octopaminergic receptor activation.

*Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100418*

#### *4.3.2 As repellent*

It is not clear if repellents function the same way in various arthropods likewise other published material disscussed. Ticks, for example, can detect repellents present on their tarsi of prolegs (Haller's Organ), whereas insects can detect repellents through their antennae. Furthermore, sensitivity to the same repellent varies only in degree among different classes, orders, and families; no fundamental differences in response type are observed [18, 48]. However, in mosquitoes, the degree of differential sensitivity remained constant over several generations, suggesting that resistance is based on heritable traits. Temperature and moisture are sensitive to mosquito antennae hairs. The repellent molecules attach to the olfactory receptors of female mosquitos, preventing them from smelling. Cockroach repellent receptors are poorly understood. Death and aversion to death (repellence) have been linked to oleic acid and linoleic acid in cockroaches. A proposal has been made for the term necromone to characterize the compound responsible for this form of behavior [18, 48].

#### *4.3.3 As fumigant*

The essential oils with bioactivity as insecticides or repellents are well known for example, rosemary, thyme, clove, lemongrass, mint, oregano oils, and cinnamon. The bioactivity of certain plants, including thyme, oregano, basil, rosemary, and mint, varies widely because the composition differences in chemical compositions are reliable [48].

Understanding essential oils' mode of action is critical for insect control because it can lead to better formulations, distribution methods, and resistance management. Many essential oils and their isolated chemicals from plants have fumigant properties. *Artemisia annua* essential oil, *Curcuma longa*, *Anethum Sowa*, *Lippia alba* essential oil, and separates such as d-limonene, carvones, and 1,8-cineole have all been used as fumigants [45–47, 50]. These results suggest that the oils acted primarily in the vapor process through the respiratory system, but the exact mode of action is unknown.

There are no natural fumigants that have been proven to work against pests that attack crops, dry foods, and other agricultural products. Phosphine, methyl bromide, and DDVP are the most used fumigants (2,2-dichlorovinyl dimethyl phosphate). Phosphine is responsible for an enormous percentage of Indian suicides, as a precursor for ozone depletion is a concern. In contrast, Dichlorvos is an organophosphate widely used as an insecticide to control household pests, in public health, and protecting stored products from insects (used as the precursor for ozone-depleting treatments) poses a theoretical risk of cancer [48]. All attempts should be made to develop an alternative that can take toxic fumigation while being user-friendly and cost-effective. Many aromatic plants produce highly toxic or unpleasant chemicals but serve as some valuable deterrents for various insects. These three attributes (high molecular weight, high boiling point, and low vapor pressure of essential oils) allow large-forgery fumigation to be performed by the high fumigation standards of safety and efficiency, making them better suited for large-scale fumigation than most other substances [18]. Despite essential oils having the potential for low-scale applications and single or multiple component contaminants in food, there is a lack of scientific data on food-grade applications and fusible essential oils [48].

#### *4.3.4 Synergistic action of essential oils*

The synergistic rationale for combining products assumes that the combined product's phase carries much weightage than the count of its known and unknown chemical components that result in a complex effect of multiple modes of action.

#### *Global Decline of Insects*

Among the essential oils and their components and other ingredients used in formulating a product, both positive and negative types of synergism may occur. This is important to keep in mind because essential oils will work together to create a synergy that may negatively affect the base product. The salinity and pH of the base product can affect the actions of the essential oils.

Low pH and a saline environment (5% NaCl) have been shown in several studies to increase the activity of the entire product. Synergistic activity has been demonstrated for essential oil combinations such as thyme, anise, and saffron [1, 18, 48, 51]. Mixed monoterpene mixtures had a synergistic impact on mortality [5, 52]. For use against foliar-feeding pests, a monoterpene blend was produced containing 0.9% active ingredient.

Monoterpenoids bind to the octopaminergic receptor, which is only found in insects. A proprietary blend of essential oils called Hexa Hydrox (EcoPCO EcoSMART Technologies, Franklin, Tennessee) with different plant essential oils was developed to significantly increase the potency of these oils in pest control. This proprietary technology, which combines oils with a normal molecular structure to target octopaminergic sites, demonstrates rapid insecticidal action (a six-membered carbon ring with an oxygenated functional group attached). The US Food and Drug Administration has listed them as GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) and has licensed them for use in food and beverages [18, 48].

#### **5. Safety**

The toxicity of pesticides and the exposure of applicators or users influence the risks associated with their use. Pesticides are tested during the registration process in some cases. The assessments should include the acute toxicity for formulating products to determine the effective preventive measures by the recommendations issued by the FAO, UN, and the WHO. To assess the risk of health-associated to short-term exposure, the acute toxicity and metabolites or degradations of the active substances are assessed. Reproductive and developmental toxicity, carcinogenicity, and mutagenicity should be evaluated in determining risks related to long-term exposure, sub-chronic, and chronic effects.

Furthermore, farmworker and pesticide applicator exposure and residue in crop production should be assessed to determine whether the risks associated with pesticides used are tolerable [5]. There have been no or only partial safety tests of homemade botanical insecticides except for neem products. Homemade botanical insecticides vary from industrial pesticides. The former contains an active ingredient cocktail with unknown concentrations and a long list of variable concentrations of compounds with novel properties. Furthermore, although plant material concentrations may be poor, processing exposure has not been assessed and may be very high. As a result, even though safety tests are available, it is difficult to extrapolate the risks found in laboratory trials to real-world scenarios. Many countries' plant protection laws prohibit homemade preparations, even though this is often the case in agriculture. As a result, some countries, at least for non-commercial farming, use such preparations [48].

#### **6. Safety to the environment**

In similarity with risks associated with human health, adverse pesticide uses depend on their toxicity and exposure to non-target organisms—such as pests, pollinators, birds, fish, and mammals. These risks should be evaluated to determine if they are accepted as a part of the registration process [5, 53]. For the registration

*Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100418*

of pesticides, environmental fatality data usually are also required. The risk of bioaccumulation with homemade botanical insecticides is generally less because they contain natural materials known to degrade faster than many synthetic compounds [48].

Despite the possibility that certain homemade botanical insecticides have lower toxicity to non-target organisms than broad-spectrum insecticides, these findings illustrate the importance of the further study. The application of botanical products should consider their possible negative effects on non-target organisms if it is appropriate and handled with care. Similarly, botanical products, including pesticides, should not be used alone to combat pests. Botanical products can be used in an integrated pest management system (IPM). It may be used with other non-pesticidal tools such as plant diversification, habitat protection, and other non-pesticidal tools.

#### **7. Conclusions**

The use of botanical insecticides should not be ignored in low-income countries. In addition to synthetic pesticides, botanical insecticides may be less active. They are still an option, especially in combination with the IPM approach, in areas where farmers either have no access to commercial pesticides or have limited affordability of these synthetic pesticides. As a result, food waste in some of the most depleted areas of the world has been reduced. It is important to remember and convey the risks associated with using natural insecticides (i.e., alterable effectiveness and possible health and environmental consequences).

Botanicals: natural insecticides derived from plant sources are used as the best alternate for conventional pesticides to protect our crops, avoiding adverse effects of synthetic insecticides. Botanical insecticides have a wide range of chemicals and their modes of action; they have a variety of the impact on insects. Thus, botanical insecticides are preferred over synthetic insecticides, and organic crop producers in developed countries accept these botanical insecticides. As a result, we advocated for the use of botanical insecticides, which has been encouraged, and research is underway to identify new botanical insecticide sources.

#### **Acknowledgements**

The author is grateful to Research Scientist Dr. Chamila Darshanee (Sri Lanka) for reviewing this chapter early. The authors would like to thank the Science and Technology Development (STDF), Egypt entitled: "Eco-friendly Pesticides against Pests of Medical, Veterinary, and Agricultural Importance" ID: 41608.

#### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Notes/thanks/other declarations**

Authors take sole responsibility of no submission to any other source, journal, or publisher of the chapter submitted to IntechOpen.

### **Author details**

Toheed Iqbal1 \*, Nazeer Ahmed2 , Kiran Shahjeer3 , Saeed Ahmed4 , Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi<sup>5</sup> , Hanem Fathy Khater<sup>6</sup> and Reham Fathey Ali<sup>7</sup>

1 Department of Entomology, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

2 Department of Agriculture, University of Swabi, Swabi, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

3 Department of Zoology, Abdulwali Khan University, Mardan, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

4 Agricultural Research Center, Londrina State University, Londrina, Brazil

5 Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, University of Tabuk, Tabuk, Saudi Arabia

6 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Benha University, Moshtohor, Toukh, Egypt

7 Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Zoology and Nematology, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt

\*Address all correspondence to: toheed.iqbal@aup.edu.pk

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Botanical Insecticides and Their Potential as Anti-Insect/Pests: Are They Successful… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100418*

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[28] Degri MM, Sharah HS. Field evaluation of two aqueous plant extracts on water melon *Citrullus lanatus* (Thumb) insect pets in northern Guinea Savannah of Nigeria. International Letters of Natural Sciences. 2014;**9**:59

[29] Kaputa F, Tembo L, Kurangwa W. Efficacy of garlic (*Allium sativum*) and red chilli pepper (Capsicum annum) extracts in the control of red spider mite (*Tetranychus urticae*) in tomatoes (*Lycopersicon esculentum*). Asian Journal of Applied Sciences. 2015;**3**(1): 124

[30] Schmutterer H. Properties and potential of natural pesticides from the neem tree, *Azadirachta indica*. Annual Review of Entomology. 1990;**35**:271-297

[31] Boursier CM, Bosco D, Coulibaly A, Negre M. Are traditional neem extract preparations as efficient as a commercial formulation of azadirachtin A? Crop Protection. 2011;**30**(3):318. DOI: 10.1016/j. cropro.2010.11.022

[32] Shiberu T, Negeri M, Thangavel S. Evaluation of some botanicals and entomopathogenic fungi for the control of onion thrips (*Thrips tabaci* L.) in West Showa, Ethiopia. Journal of Plant Pathology & Microbiology. 2012;**04**:01. DOI: 10.4172/2157-7471. 1000161

[33] Ibrahim A, Demisse G. Evaluation of some botanicals against termites' damage on hot pepper at Bako, Western Ethiopia. International Journal of Agricultural Policy and Research. 2013;**1**(2):48

[34] Aziz MA, Ahmad M, Nasir MF. Efficacy of different neem (Azadirachta indica) products in comparison with Imidacloprid against English grain aphid (*Sitobion avenae*) on wheat. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology. 2013;**15**(2):279

[35] Degri M, Mailafiya D, Wabekwa J. Efficacy of aqueous leaf extracts and synthetic insecticide on pod-sucking bugs infestation of cowpea (*Vigna unguiculata* (L.) Walp) in the Guinea Savanna Region of Nigeria. Advances in Entomology. 2013;**01**(02):10. DOI: 10.4236/ae.2013.12003

[36] Kumar MM, Kumar S, Prasad CS, Kumar P. Management of gram pod borer, *Helicoverpa armigera* (Hubner) in chickpea with botanical and chemical insecticide. Journal of Experimental Zoology, India. 2015;**18**(2):741

[37] Patil RS, Nandihalli BS. Efficacy of promising botanicals against red spider mite on brinjal. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural Sciences. 2009;**22**(3):690

[38] Ilesanmi JO, Gungula DT. Preservation of cowpea (*Vigna unguiculata* (L.) Walp) grains against cowpea bruchids (*Callosobruchus maculatus*) using neem and moringa seed oils. International Journal of Agronomy. 2010;**2**:1. DOI: 10.1155/2010/235280

[39] Ileke KD, Oni MO. Toxicity of some plant powders to maize weevil, *Sitophilus zea mais* (Motschulsky) [Coleoptera: Curculiondae] on stored wheat grains (*Triticum aestivum*). African Journal of Agricultural Research. 2011;**6**(13):3043. DOI: 10.5897/AJAR11.622

[40] Kemabonta KA, Falodu BB. Bioefficacy of three plant products as post-harvest grain protectants against *Sitophilus oryzae* Linnaeus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on stored wheat (*Triticum aestivum*). International Journal of Natural Sciences. 2013;**4**(2):259

[41] Paul UV, Lossini JS, Edwards PJ, Hilbeck A. Effectiveness of products from four locally grown plants for the management of *Acanthoscelides obtectus* (Say) and *Zabrotes subfasciatus* (Boheman) (both Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in stored beans under laboratory and farm conditions in Northern Tanzania. Journal of Stored Products Research. 2009;**45**(2):97. DOI: 10.1016/j.jspr.2008.09.006

[42] Wakeil N, Gaafar N, Sallam A, Volkmar C. Side effects of insecticides on natural enemies and possibility of their integration in plant protection strategies. In: Insecticides—Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies. London: InTech; 2013. pp. 3-56

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[44] Regnault-Roger C, Vincent C, Arnason JT. Essential oils in insect control: Low-risk products in a highstakes world. Annual Review of Entomology. 2012;**57**:405-424. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100554

[45] Wafaa MH, Rowida S, Baeshen, Hussein AH, Ahl S-A. Botanical insecticide as simple extractives for pest control. Cogent Biology. 2017;**3**(1): 1404274

[46] Enan EE. Molecular and pharmacological analysis of an octopamine receptor from american cockroach and fruit fly in response to plant essential oils. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology. 2005;**59**:161-171

[47] Verma N, Tripathi AK, Prajapati V, Bahl JR, Bansal RP, Khanuja SPS, et al. Toxicity of essential oil from Lippia alba towards stored grain insects. Journal of Medicinal & Aromatic Plants. 2001;**22/4A and 23/1A**:117-119

[48] Ahmed N, Alam M, Saeed M, Ullah H, Iqbal T, Al-Mutairi KA, Shahjeer K, Ullah R, Ahmed S, Ahmed NA, Khater HF. Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control of Insects and Pests. global Decline of Insects 2021 Oct 25. IntechOpen.

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[50] Tripathi AK, Prajapati V, Kumar S. Bioactivities of l-carvone, d-carvone and dihydrocarvone towards three stored product beetles. Journal of Economic Entomology. 2003;**96**: 1594-1601

[51] Tripathi AK, Prajapati V, Verma N, Bahl JR, Bansal RP, Khanuja SPS, et al. Bioactivities of the leaf essential oil of Curcuma longa (Var. CH-66) on three species of stored product beetles. Journal of Economic Entomology. 2002;**95**:183-189

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#### **Chapter 8**

## Fenitothion Degradation by *Aspergillus parasiticus*

*Thenepalli Sudha Rani and Potireddy Suvarna Latha Devi*

#### **Abstract**

India is a predominantly agriculture-based country with a population of 1.27 billion, according to FAO the population has reached to 1.66 billion in between 2007 and 2050. Tense because of overgrowing population the yield of crops were increased by applying various insecticides for controlling (insects, pests). Globally, an appraise 1 to 2.5 million tons of effective insecticide additives go on applied each year, especially in agriculture. Fenitrothion is an organophosphate insecticide employed to destroy pests, insects particularly in Paddy fields and it is an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, neurotoxicant and the toxic metabolites in the environment is remain for longer periods, so it is necessary to degrade the fenitrothion by biodegradation. The fungi *Aspergillus parasiticus* were screened from paddy fields and Molecular characterized it by 26S rDNA gene sequencing, the fungi breaks the insecticide within 24 h of incubation in PDB. The course of the degradation process was studied using FTIR and HPLC.

**Keywords:** FAO, FTIR, HPLC, 26S rdna, acetylcholinesterase inhibitor

#### **1. Introduction**

Extensive dimensions of insecticides make employment toward agriculture everywhere in the universe [1]. Organophosphates (OPs) remain a class of insecticides, certain of which are extremely toxic. Organophosphorus composite poisoning is a global health obstacle among nearby 3 million poisonings furthermore 200 000 deaths periodically [2]. The primary organophosphorus insecticide, tetraethyl pyrophosphate, did originate furthermore employed near 1937. They were among the numerous extensively applied insecticides available. Organophosphates (also known as phosphate esters, or OPEs) are a group regarding organophosphorus compounds besides the global edifice O=P(OR)3, a prime phosphate particle including alkyl or aromatic substituents.

Most utmost of the organophosphorus insecticides enhance relevent universal composition, comprising 3 phosphoester linkages, plus hydrolysis concerning one of the phosphoester bonds dramatically diminishes the toxicity regarding comic insecticides by eliminating their acetylcholinesterase–inactivating properties [3] fenitrothion [O, O-dimethyl O- (3-methyl-4-nitrophenyl) phosphorothioate] stands one of the various broadly utilized broad-spectrum organophosphate insecticide, an acaricide is exercised to slaughter pests like piercing, crunch, and suctorial insect pests (bugs of wheat, beetles of flour, grain, stem borers of rice, Weevils of grain) usually acts on rice, cereals, grasp, greens, further applied as a mosquito, sail, cockroach repellents, sprays as fields and society curriculum, and can do grasped

#### *Global Decline of Insects*

through each route, including inhaling, ingestion, plus dermal intake, comic toxicological effect as concerns comic insecticide fenitrothion is about entirely due to comic repression of acetylcholinesterase in the nervous system, emerging against respiratory, myocardial and neuromuscular transmission impairment, and comic toxic metabolites in the environment remain for more sustained periods, because of this inference fenitrothion is degraded by employing microorganisms.

The extreme degradation product of fenitrothion is 3-methyl-4-nitrophenol and induces extensive corruption in soils and the aquatic environment.

Fenitrothion degradation proceeds through hydrolysis & photolysis under sunlight (or) UVR, microflora further impersonates a very important role in degradation, fenitrothion in water is stable when microorganisms, sunlight is not an available form, in soil mainline of degradation is the biodegradation [4].

In the degradation of fenitrothion the biological spp. namely *Anthrobacter aurescens, Burkholderia, Rhizobium, Flavobacterium, Chlorella, Pseudomonas* operate vital activity.

Genes of particular are abode culpable for the degradation of insecticides, several practicable organisms able of cleavage diverse sort of organophosphates has been screened and characterized from various slots. The vastly optimistic way for the degradation of organophosphate insecticides are enzymatic mechanisms, of extracellular, hydrolase of organophosphorus (OPH) has being a classic enzyme with capable to resolve a vast array of organophosphorus pesticide and chemical combat determinants.

Organophosphate hydrolase along with MPD, OPD, MPH, etc. regard to organophosphorus hydrolase group. Organophosphorus hydrolase has the highest exercise along with wide-ranging for the abrupt withdrawal out of organophosphates. Along with this parathion hydrolase, paraoxonase, esterase, phosphotriesterase, and diisopropyl fluorophosphatase [5] also display the pivotal part in fenitrothion degradation. Pakala [6] identified the bacterial species namely *Serratia*, which is responsible for the deterioration of Parathion by Parathion hydrolase and also reducing the nitro group by nitroreductase.

Bioremediation is the process of applying biological systems of diminution in regard to contaminants of aquatic, sublunary or from the wind. The major biological systems applied for Bioremediation are naturally or premeditatively microorganisms and plants. The most frequently applying method for Biodegradation is bioremediation with microorganisms. The present universal proceedings of bioremediation that comprise bioengineering tense potential of innate microbes to clear up comic habitat are compelling different to prevalent rendition methods [7].

Fungi, bacteria acts as the cheaper, excel environment friendlier option in deterioration referring to insecticides of organophosphates, biological process form different metabolites in fenitrothion degradation. Biodegradation was effective in the treatment of this pollution in a eco-friendly manner.

In the present study, a novel fungal *Aspergillus Parasiticus* capable as concerns deteriorating not justly fenitrothion but also 3-methyl-4-nitrophenol was isolated. Biodegradation of fenitrothion in Czepak-dox medium was studied. Tense research directs toward elucidating per probable employment of an isolated fungal strain toward remediation as concerns comic fenitrothion-contaminated environment.

#### **2. Materials and methods**

#### **2.1 Chemicals**

Analytical grade fenitrothion (50% ec) were purchased from Shijiazhuang Awiner Biotech Co., Ltd., China and were employed as standard. Technical grade fenitrothion a 20% emulsifiable concentrate used in this study were obtained from Chennai local market, India. All additional reagents applied in this study were of high purity and analytical grade.

#### **2.2 Soil sample**

Paddy soils were taken away from the agriculture field regarding Pakala, Chittoor District, Andra Pradesh, with a sustain cultivation exercise as well as Thirty years. Exterior clay of 0–15 cm was levelheaded, stored currently in elastic pouches, transferred these particulates directed toward the lab [8]. The paddy clay was drained at room temperature, restrained the wateriness contentment by about 20% (W/W), besides, the paddy clay is transpired over a bowl-shaped sieve alongside a 2 mm net, physicochemical parameters of the test clay was assayed, detailed physicochemical parameters of the soil are presented in **Table 1**.

#### **2.3 Isolation of fungi-enrichment technique**

The clay samples of 50 g were allocated in various Erlenmeyer flasks and samples were further enriched with amendment of different (10, 25, 50, 75,100 ppm) concentrations with fenitrothion respectively to provide a terminal quantity about 100 ppm, agitated the flasks forcefully being homogeneous mingle of insecticide, incubate it at 27C ± 2°C up to 3 weeks, wateriness contentment was maintained with the addition of distilled water twofold by 1-week interim [8]. The media of stock culture were processed over transpose 5 g of paddy clay to Potato dextrose broth from enriched clay samples of pH -7 [9] with ingredients Potatoes, infusion-200.0, Dextrose-20.000, Agar - 15.000, pH (at 25°C)- 5.6 ± 0.2 Gms/lt, without agar for preparation of broth.

#### **2.4 Screening of Fenitrothion degrading fungi**

10 ml of the stock cultures abide transmitted into the range of 100 ml Erlenmeyer flask consist of fresh 50-ml broth of Potato dextrose, subject it to the incubator belongs to shaking by maintaining the speed of rpm 250 at 27C ± 2°C. Further, the culture of 1 ml is transferred to clean Erlenmeyer flasks containing fresh broth with (10, 25, 50, 75,100 ppm) of insecticide and maintained at 27C ± 2°C with shaking at 250 rpm for 1 week. The steps were repeated up to 6 transfers. Following 6 transmittals, one loop of inoculates abide inoculated over agar of Potato dextrose plates, stored by 27C ± 2°C for 24 - 48 h [8].


#### **Table 1.**

*Physicochemical parameters of the test soil.*

#### **2.5 Enrichment procedure for isolation of potential fungi strain**

Fungal isolates were carried out in Czepak-dox broth according to the methods of [10]. Fungi isolate degrading fenitrothion were obtained by enrichment culture in the Czepak-dox agar media containing Sodium nitrate, 2.0 gm L−1, Sucrose, 30.0 gm L−1, Magnesium sulphate, 0.5 gm L−1, Dipotassium Phosphate, 1.0 gm L−1, Ferrous sulphate, 0.01 gm L−1, Potassium Chloride, 0.5 gm L−1, Agar, 15.0 gm L−1, pH 7.3 ± 0.3 at 25°C by successively greater fenitrothion convergence (200, 300, 400, 500 ppm) by maintaining the controls (without inoculation of fungi). For this different ppm concentration of fenitrothion (**Figure 1**) were prepared by solubilizing the fenitrothion in acetone. By using Czepak-dox broth the degradation of insecticide is also checked in liquid media [7, 8, 11].

#### **2.6 Growth studies of the potential isolate**

Growth curves of fungi isolate were determined in PDB with fenitrothion and without fenitrothion as control, A culture of aliquant is taken out by constant interim as for 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 24 hours. Absorbance was measured at 600 nm [12].

#### **2.7 Parameters of optimization**

To check shaking & static consequence of insecticide degradation, flasks containing 50 ml PDB amended with fenitrothion insecticide and fungi culture were inoculated and incubated at 37°C in static condition and another set is subject to the shaker of orbital up to 24 hours by 120 rpm. Insecticide samples are introverted by systematic span interregnum & exposed to degradation assay.

#### **2.8 Utilization of phosphate by fungi**

According to the literature of [7, 8, 11, 13]. The fungi utilize phosphorus from [Organo Phosphate Insecticide] as the major source for their growth- Phosphatase activity. Czepak-dox agar medium with, without out Phosphorus & dispersed in conical flaskets of 100 ml & sterilized with autoclave through standard manner, after sterilization various concentrations related to Fenitrothion of 50% EC as 10, 20, 50, 100 ppm is added as a phosphorus source. Two agar plates were kept as Control - Czepak-dox agar medium with Phosphorus (without Fenitrothion). The Isolate namely *Aspergillus parasitcus* abide cleft in distinction to earnestly thriving culture on PDA & positioned on comic centre as concerns specific Petri

**Figure 1.** *Different ppm concentrations of fenitrothion.*

dishes encompass a various congregation as for Fenitrothion. The effect of growth and utilization of Phosphate by *Aspergillus parasitcus* by virtue of culture medium belongs to liquid prior to Czapak Dox, be accomplished with 2 calibrates albeit with & without Fenitrothion emendation.

#### **2.9 Taxonomic identification of the fungi strain**

Genomic DNA isolation purification is carried out by carried out by utilizing fungal-peculiar 26 s rDNA sequencing of gene molecular characterization [14] was identified. Further, strains were amplified by PCR and then confirmed by molecular-based 26 s rDNA partial sequencing accomplished at National Collection of Industrial Microorganisms (NCIM) CSIR-NCL, Pune. Virtually intact term 26 s rDNA abide ampliate over PCR upon ITS1, ITS4. By using the universal primer this reaction was carried out. The sequel of primer abide follows in the process of 5'TCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG3'- ITS1 5'TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC3'- ITS4, the polymerase chain reaction were carried out by Initiatory denaturation-94°C-5 min, Denaturation-94°C-30 sec, Annealing 56°C-30 sec, Elongation 72°C-30 sec, Eventual expansion 72°C-10 min up to 35 cycles.

#### **2.10 Insecticide residues-extraction & exploration**

Tense flasks of culture Test Sample be possessed & percolate via the filter paper of Whatman No.1, elicitation regarding Fenitrothion amid extract of culture filtrate [15] abide accomplished later. The filtrate abides embrace as the funnel of detached facing that saline water of twenty ml about the percentage of 2 was put on. Subsequently, hexane of 40 ml, 20 ml of ethyl acetate was put on, vibrate the funnel aggressively & and concede on the point of base up to ten minutes thus 2-phases simultaneously aqueous, organic phase comes into detached, tense pace be redone thrives on redeeming comic insecticide. Finishing, funnel abide permit on sit up to fifteen minutes in-favor-of entire detachment regarding phases. Tense upper layer (organic phase) comprises fenitrothion be separated & the samples containing the residues of fenitrothion were subject for chromatographic procedures.

#### **2.11 FTIR-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy-interpretation**

Deterioration products as for the fenitrothion ensue monitored on FTIR – utilized as investing modifications with it apparent functional categories such abide intricate with its comic degradation about fenitrothion. The sample & control abide torrid & assorted by Potassium bromide (1:20; 0.02 grams as regards to sample accompanied by KBr with finishing net of 0.4 grams) Premise the samples, desorb it by 60°C & press down for pellets of IR-transparent. Tense absorbancy spectra regarding samples are chronicled by utilizing (FT-IR-NICOLET IS10). The scanning rate as concerns 500–3000 cm−1 is applied for taking the spectra. Tense FT-IR is initially measured peculiar background scanning along with control as clear Potassium bromide & afterwards, the sample regarding analysis be scanned tense Fourier-transform infrared spectrum about comic non-deteriorated control be finishing deduct out of possession of comic spectra about deteriorated insecticide [16]. The positions of stretching & band, bending be espied & collate along with allusion compounds. With wave quantity group the band posture is conferred (cm−1 reciprocal centimeters). Tense band ferocity manifested as (T) transmittance. According to comic band positions, the presence of functional groups was counted.

#### **2.12 HPLC - high-performance liquid chromatography**

Tense deteriorated compounds abide determined at high-performance liquid (HPLC-1200 series) chromatography. Decolourized residue was dissolved in acetonitrile was inject into the column using mobile phase like acetonitrile-water. HPLC be carried out to separate individual compounds of intermediates, for separation of sole products concerning intermediary that were identified by utilizing of UV–Vis detector reverse phase column be applied. Tense acetonitrile-water in the ratio of 1:1 was used with the rate of movement 0.5 ml/minute. Tense eluates are monitored by 254 nm wavelength using isocratic elution [17].

#### **3. Results and discussion**

In the current study, we practised selective enrichment methods to isolate fenitrothion deteriorating fungi of the paddy field and 5 distinct strains was obtained, among which *Aspergillus parasitcus* was chosen for analysis because of potential degradation of fenitrothion. The fungi utilize fenitrothion as phosphate source.

Soil sample collected from paddy field was enriched with fenitrothion to isolate the fenitrothion degrading fungi. From this enrichment culture, among 5 distinct strains were isolated on Potato dextrose medium containing fenitrothion. Czapek Dox Agar plate applied to screen the isolates for potential tolerance to fenitrothion.

BLAST result of the 26 s rDNA gene sequence of fungi isolate exhibited 99% similarity to that of the 26 s rDNA gene of *Aspergillus parasitcus* (GenBank accession no. MH714745). (**Figure 2**) indicates growth kinetics of *Aspergillus parasitcus*, the metabolism of fenitrothion by *Aspergillus parasitcus* was indicated by a visible increase in mycelia mass with time, the growth curve pattern was studied by growing the organisms in the presence of insecticide and comparing it with the control (without insecticide). The growth pattern of *Aspergillus parasitcus* was significantly different from the control and the lag phase delayed up to 12 hours in comic residence as concerns both isolates while in comparison toward control. Tense maximum progress was observed after 21 hours in *Aspergillus parasitcus*. The number of cells decreased as fenitrothion degradation progressed in time. Tense cells eventually are old, lyse & comic enzyme of extracellular interacts with insecticide to reduce the toxicity.

The degradation efficiency of fenitrothion insecticide was studied by static and shaking conditions at various time intervals. The resolute of degradation were identified through an increase at the flasks to be retained in a condition of static (90%) and comic activity of degradation was reduced beneath the condition of

**Figure 2.** *Growth curve of* Aspergillus parasitcus*.*

*Fenitothion Degradation by* Aspergillus parasiticus *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100028*

shaking (30%) (**Figure 3**). Beneath the conditions of shaking, oxygen presence divests hydrolase enzyme so the degradation process decreased, whereas under static conditions the activation of enzyme degrades the fenitrothion.

Fungi Utilize Fenitrothion as Phosphate Source when compared to control. Control with lack of fenitrothion, the 2 fungi with fenitrothion shows similar growth rates, which intimates phosphate is the major source for the growth of 2 isolated fungi (in solid, liquid media) namely *Aspergillus parasitcus* intimated in the (**Figures 4** and **5**) and (**Figures 6** and **7**).

#### **3.1 In liquid medium**

The spectrum of FTIR *Aspergillus parasiticus* is analyzed between the scan ranges (500–3500 cm−1), The FTIR spectrum obtained from the control (**Figure 8**)

**Figure 3.** *Effect of stationary & shaking situation on the degradation of insecticide.*

**Figure 4** Control (without fenitrothion).

**Figure 5.** A. parasitcus *(with fenitrothion).*

**Figure 6.** *Control (without fenitrothion).*

#### **Figure 7.** A. parasitcus *(with fenitrothion).*


#### **Figure 8.**

*FTIR spectrum of A. parasiticus (FI-I) (red-Control, Purple- FI-1).*

[Peaks of red color intimates control] displayed a peak at 2950 cm−1 2850 cm−1 indicating stretching and strong vibration of the C-H bond of alkane (**Table 2**). A Peak at 2150 indicating bending and medium-weak vibration of C-H bond of alkane. A Peak on 1700 cm−1 & 1600 cm−1 exhibit C=O lengthen & strong vibration of the carbonyl group. Peaks on 1350 cm−1 & 1300 cm−1 lengthen vibration

*Fenitothion Degradation by* Aspergillus parasiticus *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100028*

& medium-weak of alkyl Halide compounds. Peaks at 1250 cm−1 exhibit C-N lengthen as regards amine compounds. Peaks on 1080 & 1030 cm−1 exhibit C-O C-O lengthen as for strong compounds of ether. Peaks at 980 cm−1 & 750 cm−1 showed = C-H alkene compounds. Peaks by 620 cm−1 and 610 cm−1 & 600 cm−1 exhibit Stretch & Strong vibration of alkyl halide respectively.

The FTIR spectrum of the products formed after degradation in *Aspergillus parasiticus* isolate (**Figure 8**) [Peaks of purple color intimates] array a peak on 2910 cm−1 & 2890 cm−1 showed C-H indicating lengthen and strong vibration of alkane compounds. The peak on 1600 cm−1 exhibit N-H indicating lengthen and strong quaking of amine compounds. Peak on 1590 cm−1 exhibit C=C indicating lengthen and strong quaking aromatic compounds. Tense peak at 1500 cm−1 exhibit N-O indicating lengthen & strong vibration intimates nitro groups. Peaks on 1490 cm−1 & 1400 cm−1 showed C=C lengthen of aromatic compounds. Peaks on 1350 cm−1 showed C-N stretching concerning strong aromatic amines. Peaks on 1330 cm−1 showed C-N bent concerning strong aromatic amines. Peaks on 1230 cm−1 showed O-H lengthen concerning strong alcohol compounds. Peaks at 1220 cm−1 and 1010 cm−1 showed = C-H alkyl halide compounds. Peaks on 980 cm−1 showed O-H Stretch and Strong vibration of carboxylic acids. Peaks at 790 cm−1 showed = C-H bending and Strong quaking concerning an alkene. Peaks on 670 cm−1, 660 cm−1, 640 cm−1, 630 cm−1 showed O-H Stretch, bent and Strong vibration of alkyl halide Peaks at 600 cm−1 & 590 cm−1 exhibit C=C lengthen & Strong vibration of aromatic compounds respectively (**Table 2**).



#### **Table 2.**

*FTIR compounds from fenitrothion degrading from* Aspergillus parasiticus*.*

The insecticides were determined on collation based on comic retention time by samples with a comic standard. The HPLC elution profile of fenitrothion (control) showed prominent peaks at retention time of 10.652 minutes (**Figure 9**). The samples at 3–4 days of the interval beyond be a notable decline by the magnitude appropriate to peak on retention time 2.489,1.950, 1.275,1.209 (**Figure 10**) & The samples at 7–8 days of the interval a notable decline by magnitude appropriate to peak on retention time 1.930, 1.231 (**Figure 11**) in the degraded sample *Aspergillus parasiticus* confirming the degradation of fenitrothion. Various peaks do too espy

**Figure 9.** *HPLC chromatogram of fenitrothion (control).*


*Fenitothion Degradation by* Aspergillus parasiticus *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100028*

### **Figure 10.** *HPLC analysis of fenitrothion degradation by* Aspergillus parasiticus*.*


**Figure 11.** *HPLC analysis of fenitrothion degradation by* Aspergillus parasiticus*.*


by comic chromatogram as regards the degraded sample illustrate comic proffering as concerns metabolites at comic isolates. The significant absence concerning comic peaks recognized by comic insecticide (control) sample & tense presence as concerns strange peaks at comic degraded metabolites upon strange retention times ramparts comic biotransformation as regards parent insecticide toward molecules.

#### **4. Conclusions**

Fenitrothion organophosphate insecticide was selected for the present study. It is well known to be poisonous, carcinogenic, mutagenic and pollutant in nature because it is an acetylcholine esterase inhibitor, and inhibit different metabolic activities, and also highly toxic to all living ecosystem.

The degradation ability is also observed under static/ shaking conditions and was measured by spectrophotometric method. Degradation of fenitrothion insecticide was more efficient in static condition than at shaking condition with 7 days of incubation. The static condition, transmit as regards oxygen abide finite toward comic surface of the broth & comic cell cultures do utmost probably residuum of comic flasks & get briskly drained oxygen and enhance the degradation, fungi produce an enzyme which helps to break down the organic compounds in wastewater.

In this study the fungi utilize the phosphate as the major nutrient for their growth which is tested by Czapek Dox media which were prepared with and without fenitrothion, without fenitrothion were coded as control, the plates which contain fenitrothion should be inoculated as the two selected fungi spp. as the same way the control is also inoculated with fungi, and kept for incubation up to 7 days, along with control, the plates which contain fenitrothion also shows the same growth, here while preparation of the Czapek Dox media for control all nutrients namely sodium nitrate, sucrose, magnesium sulphate, dipotassium phosphate, ferrous sulphate, potassium chloride was added, here dipotassium phosphate serves as a phosphate source for the growth of 2 fungi, while in the other plates dipotassium phosphate is not added, instead of this fenitrothion is added, fungi for their growth it utilizes the fenitrothion as a phosphate source. Different temperature and pH and different time intervals also influence the growth of fungi which is a helpful factor to know the detailed conditions of the selected fungi.

Differences in the FTIR spectrum of fenitrothion and metabolites indicated that the insecticide molecule degraded into different metabolites. In FTIR analysis, control (insecticide) had several peaks. The difference in the FTIR spectrum of fenitrothion and metabolites indicated that the insecticide molecule degraded into different metabolites by *Aspergillus parasiticus*. The presence as concerns latest peaks in comic insecticide and nonappearance appropriate to the above peak representing the catalyzed cleavage of fenitrothion.

In the FTIR spectrum, exhibit an important modification over the position as concerns a peak, while correlated toward comic control insecticide span in both fungi isolates of *Aspergillus parasiticus*. Significant disappearance of the peaks develops over comic insecticide sampler & comic emergence as concerns fresh

#### *Fenitothion Degradation by* Aspergillus parasiticus *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100028*

peaks by comic degraded samplers beside fresh retention times rampart comic biotransformation as concerns fenitrothion toward fresh compounds.

The HPLC chromatogram of fenitrothion showed prominent peaks at retention time 10.652 intimates the control, the reduction chic ferocity as concerns comic peak by *Aspergillus parasiticus* retention time was 1.275, 1.209, 1.950, 2.489 and 1.231, 1.930, 15.836 respectively. The study exhibit comic appearance as regards peaks amidst the vanishing of the peaks of fenitrothion confirming the insecticide degradation by metabolites. The results supported by the emergence as concerns of the latest peaks over comic deteriorated compounds concoct later degradation, due to the production of different intermediate metabolites.

Our study revealed that the fungi isolate exhibit an increased level of degradation at 300 ppm concentration. Fenitrothion at a concentration of 100 to 400 ppm observed an increase in degradation with the increase in insecticide concentration. At lower ppm concentrations 75, 100 the degradation rates were increased rapidly, but the captivation as regards insecticide be boost amid 200–300 ppm comic deterioration rates were very slowly at starting days of incubation but on prolonged incubation, up to 14 days the degradation rates were increased, intimates that rapid increase in ppm concentration will slow the growth of organisms. When the concentration of ppm up to 400 ppm and 7 to 14 days there is no growth, but on prolonged incubation up to 20 days the degradation rates were increased slowly.

This intimates that at higher concentrations of fenitrothion up to 600, 1000 ppm also shows degradation from slow level to a higher level. Here at the time insecticide concentration was high, the isolates showed less capability.

#### **Author details**

Thenepalli Sudha Rani\* and Potireddy Suvarna Latha Devi Department of Applied Microbiology, Sri Padmavati Mahila Visvavidyalayam, Tirupati, A.P., India

\*Address all correspondence to: sudhapakala84@gmail.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

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[2] Karalliedde L, Senanayake N. Organophosphorus insecticide poisoning. British Journal of Anaesthesia. 1989;**63**(6):736-750. DOI: 10.1093/bja/63.6.736

[3] Home I, Sutherland TD, Oakehott JG, Russel RJ. Cloning and expression of the phosphotriesterase gene hocA from pseudomonas monteilii C11. Microbiology (Reading, England). 2002;148(Pt 9):2687-2695. DOI: HYPERLINK "https://doi. org/10.1099/00221287-148-9- 2687"10.1099/00221287-148-9-2687

[4] Matsuo M, Sekizawa J, Eto M. Fenitrothion. IPCS—International Programme on Chemical Safety. Environmental Health Criteria 133. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1992

[5] Kumar S, Kaushik G, Dar MA, Villarreal-Chiu J. Microbial degradation of organophosphate pesticides: A review. Journal in Pedosphere. 2018;28(2):190-208. DOI: HYPERLINK "http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1002- 0160(18)60017-7"10.1016/ S1002-0160(18)60017-7

[6] Pakala SB, Gorla P, Pinjari AB, Krovidi RK, Baru R, Yanamanandra M, et al. Biodegradation of methyl parathion and p-nitrophenol 2-hydroxylase in a Gram-negative Serratia sp. Strain DS001. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2007;**73**(6):1452-1462. DOI: 10.1007/ s00253-006-0595-z

[7] Acharya KP, Shilpkar P, Shah MC, Chellapandi P. Biodegradation of

insecticide monocrotophos by Bacillus subtilis KPA-1, isolated from agriculture soils. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 2015;**175**(4):1789-1804. DOI: 10.1007/s12010-014-1401-5

[8] Akhter MA, Laz R. Isolation and molecular characterization of pesticide (fenitrothion) resistant bacteria from agricultural field. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy. 2013;**3**(5):31-38. (e)-ISSN: 2250-3013, (p)-ISSN: 2319-4219. Available from: www.iosrphr.org

[9] Kumar M, Philip L. Bioremediation of endosulfan contaminated soil and water optimization of operating conditions in laboratory scale reactors. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2006;**136**(2):354-364. DOI: HYPERLINK "https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jhazmat.2005.12.023"10.1016/j. jhazmat.2005.12.023

[10] Anwar S, Liaquat F, Khan QM, Khalid ZM, Iqbal S. Biodegradation of chlorpyrifos and its hydrolysis product 3,5,6-trichloro2-pyridinol by Bacillus pumilus strain C2A1. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2009;**168**(1):400- 405. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.02.059

[11] Jayaraman P, Naveen Kumar T, Maheswaran P, Sagadevan E, Arumugam, P. In vitro studies on biodegradation of chlorpyrifos by Trichoderma viride and T. harzianum. Journal of Pure and Applied Microbiology. 2012;**6**(3):1465-1474. Available from: https:// microbiologyjournal.org/ in-vitro-studies-on-biodegradation-ofchlorpyrifos-by-trichoderma-viride-andt-harzianum/

[12] Elias F, Woyessa D, Muleta D. Phosphate solubilization potential of rhizosphere fungi isolated from plants in Jimma Zone, Southwest Ethiopia. International Journal of Microbiology. 2016;**2016**:11. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1155/2016/5472601

*Fenitothion Degradation by* Aspergillus parasiticus *DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100028*

[13] Omar SA. Availability of phosphorus and sulphur of insecticide origin by fungi. Biodegradation. 1998;**9**(5):327-336. DOI: 10.1023/a:1008310909262

[14] Kurtzman CP, Robnett CJ. Identification of clinically important ascomycetous yeasts based on nucleotide divergence in the 5' end of the large-subunit (26S) ribosomal DNA gene. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1997;**35**(5):1216-1223.

[15] Mukherjee I, Gopal M. Chromatographic techniques in the analysis of organochlorine pesticide residues, Journal of Chromatography A. 1996;**754**(1-2): 33-42. DOI: 10.1016/ S0021-9673(96)00426-8

[16] Neti N, Zakkula V. Analysis of chlorpyrifos degradation by Kocuria sp. using GC and FTIR. Current Biotica. 2013;**6**(4):466-472. ISSN 0973-4031

[17] Liu S, Yao K, Jia D, Zhao N, Lai W, Yuan H. A pretreatment method for HPLC analysis of cypermethrin in microbial degradation systems. Journal of Chromatographic Science. 2012;**50**(6):469-476. DOI: 10.1093/ chromsci/bms030

#### **Chapter 9**

## Insect Conservation and Management: A Need of the Hour

*Muzafar Riyaz, Rauf Ahmad Shah and Soosaimanickam Maria Packiam*

#### **Abstract**

Insects play a very vital role in divergent ecosystems and have gained great economic and medical importance as pollinators, pests, predators, parasitoids, decomposers and vectors. With the large-scale practice of synthetic pesticides, the diminishing rate of beneficial and pollinator insects is increasing rapidly. Environmental pollution, climate change, global warming, urbanization, industrialization and some natural calamities like wildfires add more fuel to the acceleration of insect decline all over the world. Alternative steps should be employed to replace the toxic pesticides and implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) should be put forward to reduce the overuse of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers, which have a great impact on beneficial insects as well as birds, aquatic organisms, and also on human health. The present study aims to create awareness among the researchers and general public by providing a brief review of insect importance, decline and conservation strategies.

**Keywords:** Insects, Pollinators, Insecticides, Climate Change, Insect decline, Conservation

#### **1. Introduction**

The most prevailing species ever to possess earth are Insects [1]. The amplified depiction of their body is a positive component to withstand in any environmental conditions. These six-legged creatures came to occupy the earth in the Devonian period and turned into the predominant animal's earth ever witness [2]. Unexpectedly, the insects ought to be appraised as exceedingly abundant creation, in light of the fact that with such an outfitted depiction of the body makes them dominating and the level of triumph achieved by a class of life frame inside invertebrate phyla [3]. With such a significant number of roles and the most noteworthy number of species in any population influences them prevailing life to shape on the earth. Insects are vital due to their diverseness, ecological character, and impact on farming, human wellbeing, and natural resources. Insects are viewed as the dominant animals on earth with their main competitors as humans. Humans have been relying upon the insects for the pollination of crops, honey, silk, lac and many other ecological services that insects provide in different ecosystems [4]. In an ecosystem, there are countless species of insects with their distinguished roles either associated with crops or other organisms in a particular location. The relationship of an insect with a crop or any other organism does not really imply that the species is a pest of that crop or animal. Most of the crops which needed pollination for their development

are being pollinated by most of the insects, which are the prime agents of pollination among flowering plants [5]. Insects are very crucial for the appropriate functioning of many food chains and food webs. From nymphs of dragonflies as top predators of insect food-chains in aquatic ecosystems to grasshoppers, flies, butterflies and so on as primary consumers in many grassland biomes [6, 7]. Insects act as predators, parasitoids, herbivores, decomposers, sanguivores, parasites and also help in nutrient cycling. Insects play a very important role in decomposition which includes breakdown of waste, dead plant and animal matter, thus helps in remediation and recycling of our ecosystems [8]. The biological foundation for all terrestrial ecosystems is the insects with innumerable roles not limited to terrestrial ecosystems nevertheless they provide many useful services in and around the aquatic and agricultural ecosystems as well. Forensic and medical entomology involves the study and investigation of many insect species. From maggots of blowflies to larvae of mosquitoes, the advancement in the science of forensics and vector biology is only possible because of the deep investigation of these insect species which have changed the history of human intellectual. From the Devonian period to the present era of technological advancements, earth has witnessed these six-legged flying animals which dominated both the skies as well as the terrains [9]. As the over-use of synthetic pesticides, expansion of agriculture, urbanization, industrialization, environmental pollution, rising temperatures, climate changes came into existence, the insect species are becoming no longer the dominant animals on the planet and the risk of being threatened and receiving extinction is on the verge till this day [10].

The unending requirement of food for the fast-growing human population of the world has created havoc among the diversity of insects and other animals from different taxa by the manufacturing of toxic agrochemicals including pesticides sprayed on the crops for the eradication of pests [11]. The repeated use of these toxic pesticides sprayed in crop fields not only eradicate the pests, but also directly responsible for the decline of beneficial insects, which are having a great value to carry out the process of pollination and being as predators and parasitoids to check the diversity of insect pests in the natural ecosystem. Besides the damage done by the continuous application of synthetic pesticides on the insect biodiversity, there are many factors which are equally responsible for the insect decline. The fast-growing human population gave rise to the wide-spread expansion of urbanization, industrialization and assemblage of building and road network constructions which sequentially steered to the deforestation, habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss. On contrary, climate change, rising temperatures, environmental pollutions are some of the main drivers of the global insect decline [12]. The introduction of alien and invasive plant species has also affected the insect diversity to some extant as the insects are mostly adapted to native plant and tree species. Implementation of conservation and management strategies of insects are need of the hour as the insect populations are falling at very higher proportions. The endangered and critically endangered insect species should be given top priority in terms of conservation. Additional insect surveys and field visits must be supported so that monitoring should be directed for proper analyzing and scrutinizing of endangered insect species. Comprehensive research studies, Citizen science projects could be implemented at a very large-scale, so that populations of insects and their diversity, richness and abundance can be monitored easily.

#### **2. Importance of insects: a general concept**

Insects are one of the dynamic groups of organisms in the kingdom animalia. The distinguished roles played by Insects in all biological systems makes them one of the prevailing class, earth at any point saw (**Figure 1**). The potential to withstand in any climatic condition, light weight, small size, flight capability makes them significantly versatile to endure and reproduce more faster than some other living forms on the planet. Insects were the first animals to ever develop the ability to fly. Since evolution usually works with what it has; new body structures do not crop up very often. However, in case of insects, they did not use modified limbs to fly. The

insect wings are a brand-new innovation in their physiology. The development of wings among them is so unusual that scientists are still working on, and arguing about how and when insect wings first came about. Nearly more than 1 million insect species have been discovered so far and scientists estimate that there could be million more waiting to be discovered. The faster reproductive rate, flight ability, light weight, unique body structures and major roles in different ecosystems makes them most dominant animals the earth has ever witnessed.

Insects play major roles in our environment however; insects are some of the most misunderstood and underappreciated animals on earth due to their capacity to destroy crops and carry diseases. Yet, insects are very crucial for better functioning of many ecosystems. One of the most important services that insects deliver is the pollination. Insects help in pollination of around 80% of the angiosperms across the globe [13]. Insects are very important in systematic functioning of many food chains and food webs as they provide food for many animals including birds, amphibians and reptiles. There are many significant assets that insects have been provided to Humans like Honey, Silk, Lac, Wax etc. Besides feeding on our crops and vegetables as pests, numerous insect species play crucial roles in eliminating many pest species as predators and parasitoids. Many predatory and parasitoid species of insects feed on Mosquitoes, aphids, pest caterpillars and mealybugs that destroy fruits and vegetable crops, therefore act as biological control agents in our ecosystems. Insects have been used in molecular and genetic studies, forensic sciences and many other biological studies including therapies. Many insects such as dragonflies act as biological indicators in the environment [14]. These species help in monitoring the biological quality of water as there are very sensitive to pollution. Most of the insect species help in environmental remediation as they spend most of their lives under water or inside soils. Insects play a very crucial role in the decomposition of plant and animal matter. The role of insects is so crucial that if insects and other land-dwelling arthropods were to become extinct, then it would sound death knell for all the earthlings. Majority of the birds, reptiles and mammals and amphibians would soon fizzle out to extinction. Next in line be the flowering plants, the physical structure of the forests and soon other terrestrial habitats will suffer an equatorial damage due to the disturbance in the food chains and food webs. Apart from ecosystem services, insects have been mentioned in folklores of many tribes and communities of peoples from all over the world. Many traditions across globe have considered insects as the treasures of the world. The ecosystem services delivered by insects on the planet are innumerable. However, due to some anthropogenic activities the populations of many insect species are rapidly running towards the engenderment. The largescale utilization of synthetic pesticides has created a havoc among beneficial insect populations. Apart from synthetic pesticides, climate change, cryptic and alien plant and animal species are also responsible for the decline of insects.

#### **3. Impact of anthropogenic activities on Insect diversity**

One of the most common misconceptions about insects is the pest nature. Since, many of the species among different insect orders and families are pests however, not all of the insects are pests. A lot of this is based on the personal opinions of common people which need to be changed fundamentally by taking initiatives such as public awareness and citizen science. Global decline of insects is a very big problem that we are witnessing in the present era and a lot of people are not aware of what's happening and it's difficult to understand because the insects are seemingly everywhere. A lot of studies have revealed that the insects are disappearing at a high rate with estimates suggesting to 40% of the species in class Insecta will disappear in

#### *Insect Conservation and Management: A Need of the Hour DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100023*

the couple decades [15]. The trend is pretty clear that insects are disappearing both in species and in number as well. The decline of insect biodiversity across the globe falls on many anthropogenic activities like habitat destruction through deforestation, hunting, expansion of agriculture, industrialization and urbanization. Largescale intensification of agricultural activities has resulted in decline of populations among the insects. The enormous utilization of synthetic pesticides is a result of the expansion of agricultural activities and adds as one of the top drivers of insect population decline (**Figure 2**). Besides the impact of synthetic pesticides on insects, many other factors are also responsible for their decline. Destruction of pond and wetland habitats, increasing temperatures, introduced species, ecological traits, pollution, wildfires are some of the key factors which are associated with the decline of insect populations across the globe (**Figure 3**). According to many reports, order Coleoptera (Beetles and weevils) is being highly affected by the habitat change followed by orders Hymenoptera (Bees and Wasps), Lepidoptera (Butterflies and Moths), Odonates (Dragonflies and Damselflies) and other terrestrial and aquatic insects. Pollution, climate change and biological traits are one of the main drivers associated with the vastly declining of insect species from the order Coleoptera followed by Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Odonata and other group of insects. These factors have caused a very huge damage to insect populations. As revealed by many studies across the globe, a very large of insect species such as Dung beetles followed by the bees, moths and butterflies are vulnerable and rapidly heading towards the endangerment. A decline of over <30% proportions of particular insect order can be seen among the Coccinellid beetles followed by the orthopterans, butterflies, hymenopterans and in case of aquatic insect species from the order Odonata followed by Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera [16**–**19].

Global warming and climate change are equally responsible for the decline of insect populations. The insects of temperate regions across the globe are among the most affected species of insects. Insect species such as dragonflies, stoneflies and bumblebees which are adapted to cold climates and higher altitudes are being affected by the rising temperatures in temperate regions of the world. Besides, the

**Figure 2.** *Drivers of insect decline (Designed in MS PowerPoint by Muzafar Riyaz).*

insects from the rainforests of Caribbean islands have been drastically affected by the climate change. Almost half of the insect populations across the globe are affected by the global warming and climate change trends [20]. Other factors that are equally responsible for the insect decline are persistent halogenated hydrocarbons, metal pollution, heavy metals. These pollutants often discharged into rivers, lakes and ponds which lead to in an innumerable impact to the aquatic insect fauna. Industrial spills which are very toxic not only affect the aquatic insect fauna but also other forms of life residing in both fresh and salt waters. On contrary, natural calamities such as wildfires, cyclones and so on have also made a huge impact on the reduction of insect populations. Many endemic insect species are believed to face extinction due to the recent wildfires in Australia.

#### **4. Conservation and management of insects**

Insect decline is very complicated as it is been driven by many anthropogenic and natural activities. Th populations of insects are disappearing at an alarming rate and the total mass of insects is falling by a staggering 2.5% a year [21]. Insect species such as beetles, ants, bees are disappearing eight times faster than mammals, birds

#### *Insect Conservation and Management: A Need of the Hour DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100023*

or reptiles. The population of monarch butterflies in the United States reduced by 90% in the last 20 years [22]. Insects outweigh every other animal and make up around 70% of all animal species on the planet, however there are reports of widespread decline of insect species from every corner of the world. Since, the humans have been worried about the bees for a while however, the concern for overall insect decline is much bigger than just the bees.

Insect decline is indeed problematic that we need to tackle as these animal species are very important for proper functioning of our ecosystems. The implementation of conservation and management strategies is a need of the hour. The following steps need to be implemented for conservation of the insect species (**Figure 4**):


#### **Figure 4.**

*An overview of conservational and management strategies of insects. (Designed in MS PowerPoint by Muzafar Riyaz).*


### **5. Discussion and conclusion**

Insects perform all sorts of important ecological roles without which ecosystems could not function. The biodiversity crisis in the present era has resulted in the loss of species from our planet faster than has happened for 65 million years, since the dinosaurs were wiped out by a meteor. The perception about the conservation for most of the people is that it's about large animals like tigers, pandas, polar bears and so on and that's what where most of the attention goes and trying to prevent those creatures from going extinct. However, while focusing on the mammalian and other species conservation we have missed the bigger picture that is been going on in our environment which is the quite disappearance of the insects. The disappearance of the insect species has been going on for a long time. Insect biodiversity needs to be preserved in order to preserve both the flora and fauna of the earth. Biodiversity has been very important to human history and culture as humans are totally depend on both plants and animals which live around them for food as well as for cultural value and they make our ecosystems healthy in which humans take shelter and yet so much of it is under threat. Nature has a lot of value and biodiversity is the basis of life. One of the biggest consequences of a more developed and more technological world is that people flock to cities which resulted in making humans more gentrified and more separate from the nature. As we are aware of the fact that insect biodiversity is declining dramatically all across the globe. It is very important that we have information management systems to know what's happening and what drivers are causing the insect decline, so that management strategies should be implemented for the conservation of the entomofauna. The importance of the insect fauna cannot be over-emphasized as it is very important for proper balancing of our ecosystems and ecosystems services they provide. Insects are fueling a wide range of ecosystems services that we essentially need as humans to survive. However, it is very important that even before we can save them, we need to get to know about them. The better and advanced decisions are needed in these times of insect biodiversity loss and much care is needed of all the insect fauna that are in threat to become endangered or extinct. The knowledge about these species is very important for their conservation and management. The above-mentioned steps need to be implemented as far

#### *Global Decline of Insects*

as we can, so that our future generations will get to see the natural heritage of our planet. Ultimately biodiversity will become important once it means something to each and every individual.

### **Acknowledgements**

The authors wish to thank Entomology Research Institute for extended guidance and support and aims to create a better world through conservation activities, research, publications and collaborations.

### **Conflict of interest**

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

#### **Author details**

Muzafar Riyaz, Rauf Ahmad Shah and Soosaimanickam Maria Packiam\* Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

\*Address all correspondence to: eripub@loyolacollege.edu

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Insect Conservation and Management: A Need of the Hour DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.100023*

#### **References**

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[7] Pimm SL, Lawton JH. Are food webs divided into compartments? The Journal of Animal Ecology. 1980 Oct 1:879-898.

[8] Simmons T, Cross PA, Adlam RE, Moffatt C. The influence of insects on decomposition rate in buried and surface remains. Journal of Forensic Sciences. 2010 Jul;55(4):889-892. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01402.x

[9] Wigglesworth VB. Evolution of insect wings and flight. Nature. 1973 Nov;246(5429):127-129. https://doi. org/10.1038/246127a0

[10] Leather SR. "Ecological Armageddon"-more evidence for the drastic decline in insect numbers. Annals of Applied Biology. 2017 Dec

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[11] Williams CM. Third-generation pesticides. Scientific American. 1967 Jul 1;217(1):13-17.

[12] Wilson RJ, Maclean IM. Recent evidence for the climate change threat to Lepidoptera and other insects. Journal of Insect Conservation. 2011 Apr;15(1):259- 268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco. 2014.05.027

[13] Faheem M, Aslam M, Razaq M. Pollination ecology with special reference to insects a review. J Res Sci. 2004;4(1):395-409.

[14] Riyaz M. Dragonflies: The Apex Predators of the Insect World. Academia Letters. 2021:1-4. Article 1365. https:// doi.org/10.20935/AL1365.

[15] Wagner DL, Grames EM, Forister ML, Berenbaum MR, Stopak D. Insect decline in the Anthropocene: Death by a thousand cuts. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2021 Jan 12;118(2). https://doi. org/10.1073/pnas.2023989118

[16] Sánchez-Bayo F, Wyckhuys KA. Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers. Biological conservation. 2019 Apr 1;232: 8-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2019. 01.020

[17] van der Sluijs JP. Insect decline, an emerging global environmental risk. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 2020 Oct 24. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.cosust.2020.08.012

[18] Goulson D. The insect apocalypse, and why it matters. Current Biology. 2019 Oct 7;29(19): R967-R971. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.069

[19] Saunders ME. Ups and downs of insect populations. Nature ecology & evolution. 2019 Dec;3(12):1616-1617. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-019- 1038-4

[20] Halsch CA, Shapiro AM, Fordyce JA, Nice CC, Thorne JH, Waetjen DP, Forister ML. Insects and recent climate change. Proceedings of the national academy of sciences. 2021 Jan 12;118(2). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2002543117

[21] Montgomery GA, Dunn RR, Fox R, Jongejans E, Leather SR, Saunders ME, Shortall CR, Tingley MW, Wagner DL. Is the insect apocalypse upon us? How to find out. Biological Conservation. 2020 Jan 1;241:108327. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.biocon.2019.108327

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#### **Chapter 10**

## Description of a New Species of the Genus *Anagrus* (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae): A Biocontrol Agent as an Alternative to Insecticide Use

*Shireen Saleem and Shoeba Binte Anis*

### **Abstract**

Although insects are economically important as they produce honey, silk, act as pollinators and also play an important role in functioning of an ecosystem, yet insect population is declining very fast. One of the possible causes of insects decline is excessive use of pesticides. Control of pest with synthetic chemicals or pesticides result in several issues and complications. These chemical pesticides or insecticides can also cause toxic effects on beneficial organisms like honeybees and butterflies which are important pollinators. So, biocontrol agents can be used as best alternative to control pest without harming beneficial organism and non-target insects or other organism as majority of biocontrol agents are host specific. Biological control agents including predators and parasotoids are natural enemies of insect pests. Present chapter deals with the description and illustration of one new species *Anagrus (Anagrus) sololinearis* sp.nov from India. This new species belongs to genus *Anagrus* (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae). Genus *Anagrus* is considered as one of the important and most promising biocontrol agents in insects as it is an egg parasitoid.

**Keywords:** *Anagrus*, biocontrol agent, new species

### **1. Introduction**

Insects belonging to phylum Arthropoda are the most biodiverse group of fascinating creatures and can be found in aquatic as well as terrestrial habitats. Although insects are economically important and are key pollinators, yet they are declining at global level. Several studies have been carried out in different regions which reported a substantial decline in insect populations. Several researchers studied insects decline and possible causes of their decline at global level. Recent studies, reviews and causes of insects decline were mainly based on researches from the United States or Europe. A group of European researchers in October 2017 reported that insect abundance had declined by more than 75% within 63 protected areas in Germany over the course of 27 years [1]. Stork [2]; Habel et al. [3]; Forister et al. [4]; Bayo & Wyckhuys [5]; Wagner [6]; Eggleton [7]; Klink et al. [8] and Wagner et al. [9] made noteworthy and remarkable contributions regarding the review and study of insects decline and

causes of decline at global level. Insect's populations are being declining at various rates across space and time, the decline in abundance on an average is thought to around 1–2% per year. Loss of insect diversity and abundance is expected to provoke cascading effects on food webs and to jeopardize ecosystem services [1].

Insects play a very important role in food chain and food web of an ecosystem. Butterflies and bees are considered as good pollinators. Termites and dung beetles act as decomposers. Insect's products like honey and silk are commercially important. There is an unending list of insect's economic importance and key role in ecosystem and therefore, their decline is a matter of concern and there is also a great need to find the causes of decline. There are various causes of insects decline. Some possible causes of insects decline include intensive farming, urbanization, change in climate as well as use of pesticides. Excessive use of pesticides including insecticides on agricultural crops can be toxic to a host of other organisms including beneficial insects as well as other non-target species. Pesticides have severe impact on environment too [10]. Integrated pest Management (IPM) combines the use of biological, cultural and chemical practices in agriculture to control pests. It focuses on use of natural predators, parasites and parasitoids. IPM is the best approach as it sustainably manages insects by focusing mainly on prevention rather than treatments and without doubt, it is also an environment friendly approach.

Biological pest control, an important method of IPM involves the use of another living organism to kill a pest. As no chemicals are involved, therefore no environment contamination occurs as it happens with use of chemical pesticides. One of the advantages of biological pest control also lies in the fact that the pests do not develop resistance against biocontrol agents. Biological control agents including predators and parasotoids are natural enemies of insect pests. Order hymenoptera of class Insecta form an extremely diverse group with over 1, 15,000 described species comprising almost 10% of the species diversity on the earth [11]. The order Hymenoptera includes sawflies, bees, ants and wasps, and together they directly affect human health and agriculture through diverse roles such as pollinators, pests and parasitoids [12]. The Chalcidoidea is a large hymenopteran superfamily, the majority of which are entomophagous parasitoids with hosts in a wide range of insect orders [13, 14]. Family Mymaridae belonging to superfamily Chalcidoidea includes the smallest known insects, all parasitoids in the eggs of other insects [15] except for two that parasitize larvae of a species of family Eulophidae [16]. So far, many insect species have been successfully used as biocontrol agents against various pests on agriculturally important crops. Biocontrol agents can be used as best alternative to control pest without harming beneficial organism and non-target insects or other organism as majority of biocontrol agents are host specific.

One of the important and most promising biocontrol agents in insects is genus *Anagrus* which is an egg parasitoid. Many of its species have been used successfully to control leafhoppers on apple, rice & grape [17–19]. Prior to use as biocontrol agent in integrated pest management, correct identification at generic as well as at species level is a very necessary step. Taxonomy basically deals with the identification and classification. Present work includes the description and illustration of a new species *Anagrus (Anagrus) sololinearis* sp.nov. of promising biocontrol agent genus *Anagrus* (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae) from India.

#### **2. Material and methods**

The insect specimens collected by sweeping, mounted on cards, and after card mounting, slides were prepared by adopting the procedure given by Noyes [20].

*Description of a New Species of the Genus* Anagrus *(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99957*

Body color was noted down from the card-mounted specimen. Only body length was taken from card mounted specimen and is given in millimeters (mm). Other measurements (of slide mounted specimens) are relative, and were taken from the divisions of a linear scale of a micrometer placed in the eyepiece of a compound microscope Nikon Eclipse E200. These measurements were taken at 400 × magnification (1 division = 0.00274 mm) of the microscope.

Photographs of slide mounted specimens were taken by the digital camera "Leica, DFC295" fitted over a compound microscope (Leica, DM2500). Line diagrams were made using Nikon Eclipse 80i at 400 × at zoom 9 and 11.

The following abbreviations were used:

F1, F2 and F3 = funicle segments 1, 2, 3 etc. of antenna. OOL = minimum distance between a posterior ocellus and an eye margin. POL = minimum distance between the two posterior ocelli. FWL = Fore wing length. FWW = Fore wing width.

The following acronym is used for the depository:

ZDAMU = Insect Collections, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

#### **3. Results and discussion**

#### **3.1** *Anagrus* **Haliday**

*Anagrus* Haliday, 1833: 346. Type species *Ichneumon atomus* Linnaeus, 1767:941, designated by Westwood, 1840:78 [21, 22].

Brief diagnosis: Female antennal clava entire, scape with transverse folds; each mandible tridentate. Axillae of mesosoma advanced into side lobes of mesoscutum. Forewing with posterior margin (behind venation) only slightly lobed. Posterior scutellum short and divided by a longitudinal sulcus in two lobes. Posterior scutellum about as long as or slightly longer than anterior scutellum. Foretibial spur comb-like [23–26].

#### **3.2** *Anagrus (Anagrus) sololinearis* **sp.nov.**

#### *3.2.1 Description*

Length (excluding exserted ovipositor). 0.40 mm. Body light yellow. Head yellowish; eyes black. Antenna pale brown. Fore and hind wing hyaline. Legs light yellow. Gaster yellowish brown, posterior two-third part of gaster blackish brown (**Figure 1**(**1**–**4**)).

#### *3.2.1.1 Head*

Almost triangular in frontal view, 1.7 × as broad as high (82:46); OOL 1.5 × POL (12:8); eye height about 2 × as long as malar space (37:18). Mandible brown, tridentate (**Figure 1**(**1**)). Antenna (**Figure 1**(**2**)) with scape swollen ventrally, 3.5 × as long as broad; pedicel 2 × as long as broad, 2.6 × as long as F1; F1 small, globular; F2 slightly shorter than following funicular segments; F3 and F5 exactly equal in length; F4 and F6 equal in length; F3- F4 each with 1 longitudinal sensillum; F5 without longitudinal

#### **Figure 1.**

*(1–4) Anagrus (Anagrus) sololinearis sp.nov. Female: 1, head; 2, antenna; 3, fore wing; 4, body (mesosoma and metasoma).*

sensillum; F6 with 1 longitudinal sensillum; clava 3.5 × as long as broad, slightly longer than combined lengths of F5 and F6; clava with 3 longitudinal sensilla (**Figure 1**(**1**)).

#### *3.2.1.2 Mesosoma*

Mid lobe of mesoscutum without adnotaular setae. Mesoscutum with distinct notauli. Fore wing (**Figure 1**(**3**)) 9.2 × times as long as broad; forewing disc with bare area and with only 1 median row of setae in broadest part; marginal fringe about 3 × the wing width; distal and proximal macrochaetae in ratio 5.2:1 (**Figure 1**(**4**)).

*Description of a New Species of the Genus* Anagrus *(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99957*

#### *3.2.1.3 Metasoma*

Slightly longer than mesosoma, about 1.1 × as long as mesosoma length (80: 70); ovipositor strongly overlapping mesophragma anteriorly and posteriorly slightly exserted beyond apex of gaster; ratio of total ovipositor length to length of its exserted part 4.0:1; external plates of ovipositor each bearing 1 seta; ovipositor 2.3 × as long as fore tibia length (**Figure 1**(**4**)).

#### *3.2.1.4 Relative measurements (on slide)*

Scape length, 32; scape width, 9; pedicel length, 16; pedicel width, 8; F1, 6; F2, 17; F3, 20; F4, 21; F5, 20; F6, 21; clava length, 43; clava width, 12; FWL, 212; FWW, 23; marginal fringe, 70; distal macrochaeta length, 37; proximal macrochaeta length, 7; fore tibia length, 48; ovipositor length, 114; exserted ovipositor length, 28.

#### *3.2.1.5 Material examined*

Holotype, female (on slide). INDIA: ORISSA [=ODISHA]: Puri Matia Pada, 1.xii.2007, coll. FR Khan (ZDAMU).

Paratypes, 4 females: 1 female (on slide, same data as holotype) (ZDAMU). 3 females (on slides). INDIA: ODISHA = ORISSA: Pur Chandanpur, 29.xi.2007, coll. FR Khan (ZDAMU).

#### *3.2.1.6 Etymology*

The species name based on single row or line of setae present on fore wing.

*3.2.1.7 Hosts*

Unknown.

#### *3.2.1.8 Distribution*

India: Odisha.

*3.2.1.9 Male*

Unknown.

#### **4. Comments**

This new species belongs to "*atomus*" species group of *Anagrus* s. str., and can be distinguished from other species of *atomus* group by its unique combination of characters i.e. presence of longitudinal sensilla on F3 & F4; F5 without longitudinal sensillum; bare area present on fore wing disc; fore wing disc with only one median row of setae. *A. (A.) sololinearis* sp. nov. is similar to *A. (A.) frequens* Perkins in having fore wing disc with bare area and F4 with 1 longitudinal sensillum but differs from it in the following characters: F5 without longitudinal sensillum; only one median row of setae present on fore wing disc; fore wing about 9.2 × as long as broad; ratio of total ovipositor length to length of its exserted part 4.0:1. In *A (A.) frequens*, F5 with longitudinal sensillum; 2 rows of setae present on forewing disc;

fore wing more than 10.5× as long as broad; ratio of total ovipositor length to length of its exserted part more than 5.0:1.

#### **5. Discussion**

In the present work, a new species *Anagrus (Anagrus) sololinearis* sp.nov. belonging to genus *Anagrus* (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae) was described and illustrated from India. Genus *Anagrus* is considered as most promising biocontrol agent against various insect pests as many of its species have been used successfully to control leafhoppers on apple, rice & grapes [17–19]. Minute fairy fly insect *Anagrus* can serve as best alternative to insecticide use if there is a correct identification of species of this parasitoid as well as its host.

#### **6. Conclusion**

Present work gives a brief idea about the role of insects as important components of an ecosystem as well as beneficial on a commercial basis by producing honey and silk. Due to such great importance of insects, their decline at global level is a cause of concern. Several studies by researchers carried out at global level confirmed the decline of these important fascinating creatures in different regions at varying rates to some extent. There is a need to find out the possible causes of insects decline. Excessive use of pesticides including insecticides on agricultural crops is also a cause and can be toxic to a host of other organisms including beneficial insects as well as non-target species. Pesticides can also have severe impact on environment. The present study also emphasizes on preference of biocontrol agents over pesticides or insecticides use. Biocontrol agents can be used as best alternative to control pest without harming beneficial organism and non-target insects or other organism as majority of biocontrol agents are host specific.

One of the important and most promising biocontrol agents in insects is genus *Anagrus* (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae) which is an egg parasitoid. In the present work, a new species *Anagrus (Anagrus) sololinearis* sp.nov. from India is identified, described and illustrated. This species belongs to genus *Anagrus* (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae). Genus *Anagrus* is an important egg parasitoid and promising biocontrol agent.

#### **Acknowledgements**

Authors are thankful to Dr. Mohammad Hayat, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for providing research material. The authors are also thankful to the Chairman, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for providing working facilities.

*Description of a New Species of the Genus* Anagrus *(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99957*

#### **Author details**

Shireen Saleem\* and Shoeba Binte Anis Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, India

\*Address all correspondence to: shireen.ento@gmail.com

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

#### **References**

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[3] Habel, JC, et al. Agricultural intensification drives butterfly decline. Insect Conserv. Divers. 2019; 12: 289-295.

[4] Forister, ML; Pelton, EM; Black, SH. Declines in insect abundance and diversity: We know enough to act now. Conserv. Sci. Pract. 2019; 1:e80.

[5] Sanchez-Bayo, F; Wyckhuys, KAG. Worldwide decline of the entomofauna: A review of its drivers. Biol. Conserv. 2019; 232:8-27.

[6] Wagner, DL. Insect declines in the Anthropocene. Annu. Rev. Entomol*.* 2020; 65: 457-480.

[7] Eggleton, P. The State of the World's Insects**.** Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 2020; 45(1): 8.1-8.22.

[8] Klink, R. van, et al. Meta-analysis reveals declines in terrestrial but increases in freshwater insect abundances. Science. 2020a; 368: 417-420.

[9] Wagner, DL, et al. Insect decline in the Anthropocene: Death by a thousand cuts. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2021; 118 (2):1-10.

[10] Gyawali, K. Pesticide Uses and its Effects on Public Health and Environment. Journal of Health Promotion. 2018; 6**:** 28-36.

[11] Martin, L. (2019, May 24). "Hymenopteran". Encyclopedia Britannica*.* Accessed 24 May, 2021 from https://www.britannica.com/animal/ hymenopteran.

[12] Munoz-Torres, MC, et al. Hymenoptera Genome Database: integrated community resources for insect species of the order Hymenoptera. Nucleic Acids Research. 2011; 39 (Database issue): D658-D662.

[13] Heraty, JM, et al. A phylogenetic analysis of the megadiverse Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). Cladistics. 2013; 29(5): 466-542.

[14] Noyes, J.S. 2021. Universal Chalcidoidea Database. World Wide Web electronic publication. Accessed 20 March, 2021 from http://www.nhm. ac.uk/chalcidoids.

[15] Huber, JT. Systematics, biology, and hosts of the Mymaridae and Mymarommatidae (Insecta: Hymenoptera): 1758-1984. Entomography. 1986; 4: 185-243.

[16] Huber, JT, et al. Two new Australian species of *Stethynium* (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae), larval parasitoids of *Ophelimus maskelli* (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) on Eucalyptus. Journal of Natural History. 2006, 40: 1909-1921.

[17] Chiappini, E, et al. Key to the Holarctic species of *Anagrus* Haliday (Hymenoptera Mymaridae) with a review of the Nearctic and Palearctic (other than European) species and descriptions of new taxa. Journal of Natural History. 1996; 30(4): 551-595.

[18] Triapitsyn, SV & Teulon, DA.J. On the identity of *Anagrus* (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae) egg parasitoids of Froggatt's apple leafhopper, *Edwardsiana crataegi* (Douglas) (Homoptera: Cicadellidae), in

*Description of a New Species of the Genus* Anagrus *(Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Mymaridae)… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99957*

Christchurch, New Zealand*.* New Zealand Entomologist. 2002; 25 (1): 91-92.

[19] Agboka, K, et al. (2004). Life-table study of *Anagrus atomus*, an egg parasitoid of the green leafhopper *Empoasca decipiens*, at four different temperatures. Bio Control. 2004; 49(3): 261-275.

[20] Noyes, JS. Collecting and preserving chalcid wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Journal of Natural History. 1982; 16:315-334.

[21] Haliday, A. H. 1833. An essay on the classification of the parasitic Hymenoptera of Britain, which correspond with the Ichneumones minuti of Linnaeus. – Entomological Magazine 1: 259-276, 333-350.

[22] Westwood JO (1840) Synopsis of the genera of British insects: 1-154 Addenda to the generic synopsis of British insects.

[23] Schauff, ME.The holarctic genera of Mymaridae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Memoirs of the Entomological Society of Washington. 1984; 12: 1-67.

[24] Yoshimoto, CM. A review of the genera of New World Mymaridae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Flora & Fauna Handbook No. 7, Sandhill Crane Press, Inc., Gainesville, Florida.1990; 166.

[25] Huber, JT; Viggiani, G and Jesu, R. (2009). Order Hymenoptera, family Mymaridae. In: Arthropod fauna of the UAE. 2009; Volume 2. Harten, A. (Ed.): 290-297.

[26] Pricop, E. (2013). Identification key to European genera of the Mymaridae (Hymenoptera : chalcidoidea), with additional notes. ELBA Bioflux. 2013; 5: 69-81*.*

#### **Chapter 11**

## Impacts of Organic Farming on Insects Abundance and Diversity

*Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie*

#### **Abstract**

Organic farming encourages maximum utilization of the natural biological processes to manage the farm in terms of soil fertilization and pest control, which implies using none or less synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and plant and animal growth-promoting substances. All these practices increase arthropod diversity, particularly soil-dwelling insects. Intercropping, cover crops, and hedges, which are common practices in organic fields, provide alternative habitats for arthropod communities. The refugia also provide a good source of food for pollinators in terms of pollen grains and nectar. The interactions among the different plant and animal taxa (weeds, birds, mammals) that are found in the organic farming ecosystem have a great impact on insects' abundance and diversity. This chapter summarizes the impacts of the organic farming system on the abundance and diversity of insects. The role of organic farming in mitigating the impact of agriculture intensification, urbanization, deforestation, and climate change on global insects' decline and diversity loss is discussed.

**Keywords:** insect biomass, biodiversity, ecosystem, organic farming, insect decline, landscape heterogeneity

#### **1. Introduction**

Compared with vertebrates, insects had not been given much more attention with respect to loss of diversity and conservation [1]. Recently, entomologists in Krefeld city in Germany published an article reporting a 76% decline in insects' biomass in a study that extended over 27 years [2]. This study "Krefeld study" has sparked a lot of global discussion among insect scientists as well as in the public media. Alarming terminologies were used to describe the event such as ecological Armageddon, insect Armageddon, insect defaunation, insect apocalypse, and insect decline in the Anthropocene. The Krefeld study has become connected with global insect decline as "silent spring" is connected with the negative impact of pesticides. Another study conducted by Lister and Garcia [3] in Mexico in rainforest over 36 years reported a decline of 98 and 78% for epigeal and canopy-dwelling arthropods, respectively. Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys [4] performed a meta-analysis on 73 reports on insect decline all over the world and reported a drastic decline that may lead to the total loss of 40% of the world's insect species. These alarming indicators of global insect decline led many researchers to try to find the causes and the consequent impact of this decline on the ecosystems. The main causes of insect decline appear to be habitat loss, conversion to intensive agriculture, urbanization, invasive species, climate change, and pollution by synthetic pesticides and

fertilizers [4, 5]. Of the abovementioned possible causes, agricultural intensification and habitat loss are the main causes of global insect decline [2, 6–8]. Habitat losses are mainly through the removal of forest covers, urban expansion, light pollution, and industrialization, which is responsible for polluting terrestrial and aquatic environments of arthropods [5]. The overall impacts of global insect decline on the proper functioning of the ecosystem could be easily manifested through the decrease in the services that the ecosystem provides in terms of pollination, trophic interaction, and nutrient recycling [9]. Maintenance of insect habitats, cut in synthetic pesticide use [10], and organic farming [11, 12] are probably the most effective means to stop a further decline of insects and promote recovery of biodiversity. This chapter aims to summarize the possible causes of global insect decline, the impact on ecosystem services, and measures to alleviate it with emphasis on the organic farming system.

#### **2. Role of insects in the ecosystems**

The total number of insect species in the world is estimated to be about 1 million with approximately 4.5–7 million remaining to be identified and named [13]. Insects performed three natural processes, which are essential for the proper functioning of the ecosystem. These are pollination of fruit blossoms, decomposition of organic matter into humus, and natural pest regulation (**Figure 1**) [3, 14, 15].

Insects represent a major source in the food web particularly for birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, which represent higher trophic levels. Other invaluable ecosystem services provided by insects include pollination of more than 75% of crops and wild plants [16], waste disposal and nutrient cycling, provision of highvalue products such as honey, silk, venom, and shellac. Insects also provide a source of protein for domestic animals and humans (entomophagy) [7, 15]. In the United States alone, the annual ecosystem services provided by wild pollinators were estimated at \$57 billion (**Figure 2**) [17]. The relationship between the diversity of pollinators and plants in an area is reciprocal. An unbalanced diversity of pollinators may lead to unbalanced plant diversity due to certain plants being selectively pollinated. Thus, the diversity of wild bees strongly influences the diversity of weeds

#### **Figure 1.**

*Main ecosystem services provided by insects to maintain resilience, sustainability, and proper functioning.*

**Figure 2.** *Bees and butterflies have a significant role in the ecosystem as pollinators.*

and *vice versa* [18]. It is worth mentioning here that Garibaldi et al. [19] reported that the conservation of bees' diversity is essential for ecosystem biodiversity. Other pollinators, which are important but overlooked, include hoverflies (Syrphidae). They perform different ecological functions such as pollination of a wide range of plants, controlling insect pests as biocontrol agents, and being used as bioindicators for monitoring the ecosystem's functioning.

Insects are the *sine qua non* for proper functioning ecosystems that also provide intangible services such as collection for recreational and esthetic values [15, 20]. Understanding the significant role of insects in the well-being of the planet by the public will greatly help in the adoption of mitigating measures that at least decrease the rate of decline of this group of animals. In this respect, increasing the awareness of people about the significant ecological role of insects as pollinators, prey, and nutrient recyclers could be achieved through community (citizen) science and other extension media [15].

#### **3. Possible causes of global insect decline and its impact on ecosystems**

Destruction of insect habitat, agricultural intensification, urbanization, invasive species, agro-chemical pollution, and climate warming are the main causes of global insect declines and loss of biodiversity [4, 14, 21]. Climate warming is important in the tropics; however, it may have a limited impact on the number of species in temperate regions [4]. Agricultural intensification, urbanization, deforestation, and pesticide pollution account for about 78.7% of the decline causes, while other drivers such as invasive species, climate warming, and other pollutants account collectively for only 21.3% [4]. Destruction of insect habitat is one of the important anthropogenic activities, which is responsible for biodiversity loss (**Figure 3**) [4].

Pesticide use is considered an important cause of global insect decline and biodiversity loss [22]. Consequently, insect decline indirectly influences vertebrate predators [22]. Herbicides, which are extensively used in conventional agriculture largely, eliminate weeds and wild plants, which provide a source of food and shelter for arthropods, both pests and their natural enemies. Changes in insect biomass are more relevant for the ecological functioning of the ecosystem [2].

#### **Figure 3.**

*A feral colony of the dwarf honeybees,* Apis florea *on a newly cut branch of the button mangrove,* Conocarpus erectus *L. (type of habitat destruction).*

A seasonal decline of 76% of the flying insect biomass was reported to have occurred in Germany during 27-year study of continuous insect monitoring using Malaise trap [2].

Aquatic invertebrates including crustaceans, mayflies, caddisflies, and dragonflies are very much affected by pyrethroid insecticides. Neonicotinoids, on the other hand, affect pollinators including honeybees and bumblebees, particularly when used as a post-bloom spray on perennial trees and field crops.

Industrial pollution is among the important causes of global insect decline, and the fertilizer industry may account for 10% [4]. Light pollution can lead to the luring of moths to bulbs, and make insects fall prey to lizards, toads, birds, and other predators. This negatively affects insects that use their own body-produced light as signals for mating as in the case with fireflies. Mercury vapor, metal halide, and compact fluorescent bulbs induce a more negative impact on moths (sensitive to artificial light at night) than LED and sodium lamps [23]. However, the effect of artificial light on insect populations and declines remains to be elucidated. In their assessment of the drivers causing global insect decline, Sánchez-Bayo and Wyckhuys [4] reported that *Lepidoptera*, *Hymenoptera,* and *Coleoptera* (dung beetles) in terrestrial ecosystems and *Odonata*, *Plecoptera*, *Trichoptera*, and *Ephemeroptera* from aquatic taxa were more affected.

Insect biomass has been used as a proxy for measuring the biodiversity of insects; however, this index has its limitations [24]. Instead, they recommended robust measures of biodiversity trends based on metrics including traits-based phylogeny according to spatial and temporal changes. Additionally, Didham et al.

#### *Impacts of Organic Farming on Insects Abundance and Diversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102035*

[25] emphasized the inclusion of data from long-term studies and diversity metrics in the measurement of insect decline. To reach a consensus on the global decline of insects, more log-term studies of biomass, abundance, and biodiversity are needed [26]. In tropic and subtropics, where the majority of insect diversities exist, there are few or no records of long-term data and checklists for most of the species as the case in a temperate region. Thus, many of the species may go extinct in the tropics without being noticed and in most cases before being identified and named. Due to the abovementioned reasons, the impact of global insect decline on the proper functioning of the ecosystem is yet to be quantified [27]. Therefore, long studies and compilation of records and checklists are urgently needed in the tropics and subtropics.

#### **4. Differences between conventional and organic farming systems**

In the organic farming system, natural biological processes such as the activities of soil microorganisms, nutrient cycling, and biocontrol agents are used in pest management to keep pest populations below the level that cause economic damage. On the other hand, tillage and cultivation practices are used to manage soil fertility and crop nutrients [28–31]. This is contrary to what happens in conventional farms, where synthetic chemicals including fertilizers, insecticides, and herbicides are commonly used in pest management. Pest management in organic farms is carried out by using mainly botanical and microbial pesticides that are either harmless or with a little adverse effect on the agroecosystem. Other options of pest control include crop rotation, mechanical cultivation, mulching, and flaming. Due to the use of benign pesticides and other environmentally friendly pest management measures, organic farms have a high diversity of arthropod species, on average, than conventional farms [30]. Organic agroecosystems differ from conventional ones by greater insect diversity [32], as indicated by the relevant indices, as well as the diversity of taxa and the number of individuals [12]. The largest number of phytophages was recorded in the organic fields of winter wheat, but in organic ecotones and adjacent protective forest shelterbelts, compared with the conventional ones, there were a larger share of predators and parasites. The similarity of organic field ecosystems and conventional forest belt by the Sørensen coefficient indicates the migration of phytophages from conventional fields to adjacent areas [11].

#### **5. Impact of organic farming on faunal and floral biodiversity**

Biodiversity encompasses different levels including species diversity, genetic diversity, and habitat and ecosystem diversity. It is essential for proper ecosystem functioning and critical processes such as pollination, reduction in soil erosion on arable land, decomposition of dung in pastures, and natural pest reduction in soil and on crops. Biodiversity is also essential for the stability and resilience of ecosystems [24, 33].

Species richness is higher in organic agriculture and pastures than conventional ones because chemical veterinary drugs do not contaminate them. Dung beetles provide an essential ecological function by degradation and recycling of dung, which add to soil fertility and quality in natural or organic pastures (**Figure 4**).

Dung beetles encompass three groups; the rollers (Scarabaeidae), tunneller (Geotrupidae and Scarabaeidae), and dwellers (Aphodiidae) [4]. Organic farming increases the richness and abundance of insects as compared with conventional farming. The number of insect orders, families, and individuals is greater under

**Figure 4.** *A sacred dung beetle contributing to the recycling of nutrients in pasturelands.*

organic farming. This is supported by the meta-analysis of several published studied on the topic [6, 12, 34]. Moreover, biodiversity indices such as Shannon, Menhinick, Margalef, Berger-Parker, and Piclou confirmed the greater diversity of insects in the organic field of winter wheat. The number of predators and parasitoids was more than double in organic ecotones and forest shelters [11]. Insect species richness and abundance in organic farming were found to be 22 and 36% higher than conventional farming. Likewise, the species richness and abundance for spiders were 15 and 55%, respectively higher compared with conventional farming [12]. Organic farms provide alternative habitats for predator and parasitoid communities through hedges, which represent refugia and source of food (pollen and nectar) for the adults of many insect species (**Figure 5**). Marshall et al.

**Figure 5.** *Hedges around organic farms provide refugia for predators and parasitoids.*

#### *Impacts of Organic Farming on Insects Abundance and Diversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102035*

[35] confirmed this and indicated that many species of arable weeds support a large variety of insect species.

Schmidt et al. [36] reported higher spiders' densities of about 62% in organic farms than conventional farms. They also highlighted the impact of landscape diversification, which is common in organic farming on parasitoid wasps, ladybird beetles, and ground beetles.

#### **6. The main practices on organic farms that promote higher insect biodiversity**

Conventional, seminatural or organic and landscapes surrounding the farms as well as the farm size greatly influence the conservation of biodiversity [6]. The practices and crop husbandry measures in organic farms that influence biodiversity include no use of herbicides, forbidden of synthetic chemical pesticides, use of pure organic fertilizers, rotation with a leguminous crop, and heterogeneous farm structure [37]. All these practices increase arthropod diversity, particularly soil-dwelling insects. The organic farming system encourages natural processes such as decomposition of organic, usage of livestock dungs, and compost in which several species of insects can thrive. Saprophagous insects such as springtails (*Collembolla*) flourish well in organic farms than conventional ones. The use of cover crop mulching to increase soil fertility, maintain temperature, and conserve moisture enhances the presence of insects. Soil disturbance is to the minimum in organic farming; thus, soil microorganisms and arthropods can thrive well. In an organic farming system, the use of predators and parasitoids together with botanical or natural microbial insecticides has no deleterious effect on the arthropod communities. Honeybees, wild bees, and bumblebees were reported to have exploited the diversity of different flora in organic fields. Diversity of weeds, trees, and shrubs as well as hedges in organic farms encourages visitation of bees and other generalist pollinators [38].

### **7. Conclusions**

The analysis of data on insect biodiversity revealed that organic farming strongly encourages the abundance and biodiversity of insects. Monitoring global insect decline based on biomass as the sole metric is not enough. Most of the studies on biodiversity were carried out in the temperate region, where log-term data exist. A few studies are available in tropical and subtropical regions where the majority of insects exist; therefore, no available data upon which trends of insect decline can be traced. Using robust methodology for monitoring decline in abundance and biodiversity as well as long-term studies, data are needed to reach a consensus on the main drivers of this decline. Organic farming and landscape heterogeneity can be adopted as farming systems that alleviate the loss of insects' biodiversity and decrease the rate of global insect decline.

*Global Decline of Insects*

#### **Author details**

Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie1,2

1 Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia

2 Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Crop Protection, University of Khartoum, Shambat, Sudan

\*Address all correspondence to: elshafie62@yahoo.com

© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

*Impacts of Organic Farming on Insects Abundance and Diversity DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.102035*

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### *Edited by Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie*

Insects are a group of animals that contribute significantly to the proper functioning of different ecosystems on the planet. They provide services such as pollinating crops, recycling nutrients and controlling pests. Many scientific publications and reports have studied the current global decline of insects. This decline can severely affect other groups of animals including birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, and small mammals that utilize insects as a source of food. This will have a great impact on the trophic cascade and an eventual adverse effect on the overall ecosystem. This book provides insights into the possible reasons behind the decline of insects as well as potential measures that might mitigate this decline. It contains eleven chapters written by different experts. The book is useful for a wide range of readers including entomologists, ecologists, botanists, environmentalists, and amateurs who love collecting and preserving insects.

Published in London, UK © 2022 IntechOpen © ConstantinCornel / iStock

Global Decline of Insects

Global Decline of Insects

*Edited by Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie*