*2.2.4 Kidney dysfunction*

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) stands as a global public health problem in HICs as well as in LMICs. In the USA, the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) estimated that the prevalence of CKD has risen from 11% between 1988 and 1994 up to 13% between 1999 and 2004 [35, 36]. In a systematic review and a meta-analysis from 21 medium- and high-quality studies, Stanifer found 13.9% overall prevalence of CKD in SSA [37].
