**4. Conclusions**

The high incidence of multiple traditional and non-traditional risk factors predisposes advanced CKD and dialysis patients to a considerable burden of CVD. This chapter has summarized the biology of VC, highlighting the processes of mineralization, the effects of local inflammation, and the available evidence about risk factors modification, prevention and screening in CKD. Clinicians must understand the limitations of the current evidence and adapt specific therapeutic strategies to the individual patient. Future research into modifiable, non-traditional risk factors with emphasis on mineral bone metabolism is warranted and we look forward to their clinical application and improvement of CVD outcomes in CKD patients.
