**Table 5.**

*The utility of BES and affiliated hybrid systems for removal of micropollutants.*

*Expedited Biodegradation of Organic Pollutants and Refractory Compounds… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99229*

within bacteria found in natural aquatic ecosystems. It has been established in multiple studies that such micropollutants can easily pass through conventional wastewater treatment systems such as activated sludge systems, anaerobic digester systems and membrane bioreactors completely unchanged, back into the consumers of recycled water [63]. It is therefore clear that novel technologies are required to tackle such emerging pollutants such as various types of micropollutants.

The removal of some micropollutants has been demonstrated using BES in several previous studies. In a study conducted by [64], it was demonstrated that constructed wetland-MEC hybrid system operated at pilot-scale could successfully remove several micropollutants individually and their mixtures. The removal of four pharmaceutical compounds carbamazepine (CBZ), diclofenac (DCF), ibuprofen (IBU) and naproxen (NPX) were monitored in a constructed wetland – BES hybrid environment and the removal of all of these micropollutant compounds was observed (**Table 5**) [64].

Other studies conducted in this area also indicate similar results where micropollutant compounds such as chloramphenicol [65], β-lactam antibiotics removal from pharmaceutical wastewater [66] and 17β-Estradiol removal [67] were reported in earlier studies.
