**3.2 Endpoint (damage oriented) approach**

This approach presents several impact categories which is further classified into their various damage categories. The analysis in this approach is majorly on the

AoSL (damage category). It also shows impacts at different categories but eliminates other aspects without the knowledge of emission factors [37]. **Table 11** give the characterization result of the analysis of 1 kg of OPC. This presents 22 environmental impact categories with three specific damage units based on their effects.

The characterization result of the impact assessment represented in **Table 11** gives insight into each of the impacts in the damage category with the individual units of the impact showing what is affected. With their units in view, these impact categories were thereafter classified into their damage categories. This is represented in **Table 12**.

The damage assessment as shown in **Table 12** gives a summary of the damage category each of the impact categories in the characterization falls under, which are


#### **Table 11.**

*Impact assessment of 1 kg Portland cement using endpoint LCIA method.*


**Table 12.** *Damage assessment of 1 kg Portland cement using endpoint LCIA method.*

### *Life Cycle Assessment of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) Using both Problem… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98398*

Human health, Ecosystem and Resources. Human health has a value of 1.22E<sup>6</sup> DALY, Ecosystem of 3.1E<sup>9</sup> species/yr., Resources of 0.0231 USD 2013.

Thus, further detailed analysis was carried out on the damage assessment. The specification to process of human health as shown in **Table 13** reveals that 70.1% of the damage caused on human health is from the clinker production process. Others are from energy generation: diesel (4.02%), electricity (11.1%), hard coal (4.9%), heat (4.5%) and transportation (1%). This is as a result of the emission of primary gases such as CO2, SO2, NO2, particulate matter and water. The specification to substance presented in **Table 14** shows that 67.3% of the damage is as a result of CO2 emission with other substances such as Nitrogen oxides (8.23%), Sulfur dioxide (12.2%), particulate matter <2.5 μm (9.01%), water (2.5%).

Also, the specification to process of the damage to the ecosystem summarized in **Table 15** opined that 77.8% of the total damage to the ecosystem originates from the clinker production process as observed in the case of human health, a large portion of the remaining percentage is from energy generation (Diesel is 1.81%, electricity 7.7%, hard coal 2.8%, heat 2.6%) during which primary gases (CO2, SO2, NO2) are emitted; 2.2% is from transportation. The Specification to substance analysis of damage to the ecosystem is presented in **Table 16**. CO2 constitutes the highest emission percentage which is 79.9%, and other substances constitute the rest of the percentages. These other substances are Nitrogen oxides, constituting 9.48%, Sulfur dioxide is 5.6%, methane 2.1%, water 1.2%. These emissions are often emitted into the water body and the environment (air).

**Table 17** presents specification to process of damage to resources. This shows that the major resource deletion is from Petroleum (65.8%), natural gas (11.3%),


#### **Table 13.**

*Specification to process of human health.*


**Table 14.** *Specification to substance of human health.*
