**5. Invertebrate function as food and compost**

The population of certain invertebrate are excellent source of biologically valuable protein, micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins in the human diet [43]. This species contains high protein content in the range of 54.6–71% dry matter and is rich in amino acids considered essential for humans. It also rich in fat, with content ranging from 7.3–10% of dry matter [43]. Certain invertebrate such as earthworm are grown in organic waste in a confined area for consumption purpose and vermicomposting [43, 44]. European safety rules for food must be followed with high level of protection for human health. The production of edible terrestrial invertebrates as food must be safe and wholesome for consumption and for market purpose [43, 44]. This invertebrate meal such as earthworm, millipede therefore has interesting nutritional proprieties but in order to be commercialized as a product for human consumption and/or animal feed, it must be safe for final consumption [44]. Safety standards must be ascertained to ensure disease organism are cured from these invertebrates before they are introduced for consumption [45, 46]. The finished food product must undergo assessment and as well ensure its hygienic and undesirable substances. To achieve the safety on food product, it is necessary to evaluate the microbiologic profile, testing for microorganism indicators of process

**71**

*Composting and Organic Waste Recycling a Better Option for Food Safety and Food Security*

hygiene and verifying compliance with food safety parameters, chemical profile, the presence of pesticide residue and toxic elements [45, 46]. Similarly, the growth of earthworm provides sufficient vermicompost as an organic fertilizer that allows a reduction in the use of mineral fertilizers in other production systems [45, 46]. For food purposes, earthworms for instances were subjected to a deep washing and vacuum freeze-drying procedure, a useful dehydration method is used to preserve nutritional quality [47–50]. Then, the earthworm meal are defatted to obtain a meal rich in protein and other nutrients and to decrease perishability. Food are free of pesticides or mycotoxin. The meal possesses safety traits in relation to possible public

Invertebrate communities are made up of detrivores, microbivores, predators that are functional at engineering ecosystem [55]. The physical and chemical composition of the soil may be related to the present of certain invertebrate [56]. The invertebrate communities perform the function of imputing organic matter into the soil through frequent mulching, compost, biosolid into soil habitat [55, 56]. It involves the breaking down of tree leaf, litter to grass clipping and root exudate [55, 56]. The availability and the abundant of these invertebrate determines the efficiency of the ecosystem. The invertebrate apart from earthworm that are found effective at composting organic waste this include dipteran larva, fruit fly (Drosophila spp.) and the P (Dipteran) [55, 57]. Dipteran larva composes waste at a mesophilic temperature not higher than 40°C but fruit fly (Drosiphila spp) has proven to be efficient at a thermophilic temperature greater than 40°C. The P (Dipteran) was found to have cured waste at a temperature less than 40°C [56–58]. Earthworm had been the most common invertebrate well known at composting. Vemicompost has been used in bioconversion of fruit and vegetable waste releasing organic soluble for plant growth, which is sustainable, cost-effective, and ecological approach that can contributes to the reduction of food waste [56–58]. Fruit and vegetable waste as a substrate for the growth of earthworms produces a valuable product that can influence agricultural land and crops [57, 58]. In nowadays, scientist consider use of terrestrial invertebrates such as earthworms used as an alternative source valid at restoring land productivity, especially by reintroducing fruit and vegetable waste into the food supply chain, hence turning waste into a resource [58]. Pressmud is a byproduct of bagasse. Pressmud contains about 25–30% organic matter. The major plant nutrient constituent of pressmud include N, P, K, Ca, Mg & S and the minor elements like Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, B & Mo. Pressmud can be used in vermicomposting [58, 59]. The population of earthworm called Eisenia foetida are very effective and excellent source of biologically micro and macronutrients [58, 59]. Recycling biodegradable waste into compost and compost tea is being promoted as a viable option for treating waste material [60]. As well as the use of compost as a bulk fertilizer and soil ameliorant. A considerable evidence also shows that compost and liquid preparations such as compost tea can suppress soil-borne diseases [60]. However, the effect of compost and compost tea on soil-borne diseases varies greatly depending on the properties of the compost as affected by compost formulation, the composting and compost tea brewing process, and the environmental conditions in which the material is used [60, 61]. According to [61], the efficacy of biological control as trichoderma harmatum increases as compost mature and the ratio of cellulose lignin than hay or straw based on composts. Mature compost with wood chips or bark and anaerobic digestion suppresses Rhizoctonia [60, 61]. Compost with wood as an ingredient passing through the gut

**6. Vermicompost sustainable means for food security**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97683*

health risks [51–54].

*Composting and Organic Waste Recycling a Better Option for Food Safety and Food Security DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97683*

hygiene and verifying compliance with food safety parameters, chemical profile, the presence of pesticide residue and toxic elements [45, 46]. Similarly, the growth of earthworm provides sufficient vermicompost as an organic fertilizer that allows a reduction in the use of mineral fertilizers in other production systems [45, 46]. For food purposes, earthworms for instances were subjected to a deep washing and vacuum freeze-drying procedure, a useful dehydration method is used to preserve nutritional quality [47–50]. Then, the earthworm meal are defatted to obtain a meal rich in protein and other nutrients and to decrease perishability. Food are free of pesticides or mycotoxin. The meal possesses safety traits in relation to possible public health risks [51–54].

#### **6. Vermicompost sustainable means for food security**

Invertebrate communities are made up of detrivores, microbivores, predators that are functional at engineering ecosystem [55]. The physical and chemical composition of the soil may be related to the present of certain invertebrate [56]. The invertebrate communities perform the function of imputing organic matter into the soil through frequent mulching, compost, biosolid into soil habitat [55, 56]. It involves the breaking down of tree leaf, litter to grass clipping and root exudate [55, 56]. The availability and the abundant of these invertebrate determines the efficiency of the ecosystem. The invertebrate apart from earthworm that are found effective at composting organic waste this include dipteran larva, fruit fly (Drosophila spp.) and the P (Dipteran) [55, 57]. Dipteran larva composes waste at a mesophilic temperature not higher than 40°C but fruit fly (Drosiphila spp) has proven to be efficient at a thermophilic temperature greater than 40°C. The P (Dipteran) was found to have cured waste at a temperature less than 40°C [56–58]. Earthworm had been the most common invertebrate well known at composting. Vemicompost has been used in bioconversion of fruit and vegetable waste releasing organic soluble for plant growth, which is sustainable, cost-effective, and ecological approach that can contributes to the reduction of food waste [56–58]. Fruit and vegetable waste as a substrate for the growth of earthworms produces a valuable product that can influence agricultural land and crops [57, 58]. In nowadays, scientist consider use of terrestrial invertebrates such as earthworms used as an alternative source valid at restoring land productivity, especially by reintroducing fruit and vegetable waste into the food supply chain, hence turning waste into a resource [58]. Pressmud is a byproduct of bagasse. Pressmud contains about 25–30% organic matter. The major plant nutrient constituent of pressmud include N, P, K, Ca, Mg & S and the minor elements like Fe, Zn, Mn, Cu, B & Mo. Pressmud can be used in vermicomposting [58, 59]. The population of earthworm called Eisenia foetida are very effective and excellent source of biologically micro and macronutrients [58, 59]. Recycling biodegradable waste into compost and compost tea is being promoted as a viable option for treating waste material [60]. As well as the use of compost as a bulk fertilizer and soil ameliorant. A considerable evidence also shows that compost and liquid preparations such as compost tea can suppress soil-borne diseases [60]. However, the effect of compost and compost tea on soil-borne diseases varies greatly depending on the properties of the compost as affected by compost formulation, the composting and compost tea brewing process, and the environmental conditions in which the material is used [60, 61]. According to [61], the efficacy of biological control as trichoderma harmatum increases as compost mature and the ratio of cellulose lignin than hay or straw based on composts. Mature compost with wood chips or bark and anaerobic digestion suppresses Rhizoctonia [60, 61]. Compost with wood as an ingredient passing through the gut

*Humic Substances*

abortion

**Table 2.**

Brucellosis or Contagious

In addition, European safety rules for food should be followed by a high level of protection of human health, and the production of edible terrestrial invertebrates as food should be safe and wholesome and reared and marketed as food [37–42]. The lethal time conditions for some common pathogens are shown in the **Table 2**.

*americanus*

Hookworm Ancylostoma duodenale and *Necator* 

**Disease Organism Lethal conditions** 

Anthrax *Bacillus anthracis* Over 100°C

Cholera Vibrio cholera 15 mins - 55 °C Diphtheria Diphtheria Corynebacterium 10 mins - 58°C Dysentry Shigella species 60 mins - 55 °C Food poisoning Salmonella species 20 mins - 60 °C Leptospirosis (Weil's disease) Leptospira species 10 mins - 50 °C Plague Pasteurella pestis 5 mins - 55 °C Staphylococcal infections Staphylococci 30 mins - 60 °C Streptococcal infections Streptococci 30 mins - 55°C Tuberculosis Mycobacterium 20 mins - 60 °C Typhoid fever Salmonella typhi 20 mins - 60 °C Vibriosis Intestinal worms Vibrio fetus 5 mins - 56°C Round worm Ascaris lumbricoides 60 mins - 55 °C Tape worm Taenia saginata A few minutes - 55 °C

**(moist heat)**

1 min - 55 °C

Brucella species 10 mins - 60°C

The population of certain invertebrate are excellent source of biologically valuable protein, micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins in the human diet [43]. This species contains high protein content in the range of 54.6–71% dry matter and is rich in amino acids considered essential for humans. It also rich in fat, with content ranging from 7.3–10% of dry matter [43]. Certain invertebrate such as earthworm are grown in organic waste in a confined area for consumption purpose and vermicomposting [43, 44]. European safety rules for food must be followed with high level of protection for human health. The production of edible terrestrial invertebrates as food must be safe and wholesome for consumption and for market purpose [43, 44]. This invertebrate meal such as earthworm, millipede therefore has interesting nutritional proprieties but in order to be commercialized as a product for human consumption and/or animal feed, it must be safe for final consumption [44]. Safety standards must be ascertained to ensure disease organism are cured from these invertebrates before they are introduced for consumption [45, 46]. The finished food product must undergo assessment and as well ensure its hygienic and undesirable substances. To achieve the safety on food product, it is necessary to evaluate the microbiologic profile, testing for microorganism indicators of process

**5. Invertebrate function as food and compost**

*Lethal- time conditions for some common pathogen sourced: [2].*

**70**

of earthworm provides a healthy micro biome that provide ecosystem functions including promotion of plant growth. The microbes however, mediates and prevent limiting organisms to releasing plant nutrient. This indicate that beneficial microbe compete with antagonizing pathogen [60, 61]. Likewise, these microbial species produce antibiotics to combat pathogens, manufacture plant growth hormone or induce systematic plant defense that promote plant growth. However, a good composition and curing method deliver a national consortium of microbes for biological control of diseases [60, 62].

#### **7. Composts suppress diseases organisms in the root**

Disease suppressiveness vary differently with respect to pathogens for instance some soil with compost were found suppressive to Fusarium wilt [62]. The suppression of diseases are specific to composition and the various components blended together during composting. A compost that is steam sterilized are found efficient and stable [62, 63]. Pythium and root knot nematode was found suppressed with the application of organic manure in the growth of tomato, sweet peppers and ornamental [64, 65]. Soil borne diseases was also found suppressed with the use of compost during plant growth [66, 67]. Mature compost suppresses diseases with the addition of organic amendment and biological control agent [66, 67]. The use of compost increases the suppression of diseases. Compost application prevent quick re-infestation of soil by pathogen. Diseases such as bacterial cancker and wilt of tomato are caused by *Clavibacter michiganensis* and *Ralstonia solanacearum* [67]. It was also recorded that compost was effective at reducing botrytis cinerea on cucumber and melon bacterial leaf spot of *Xanthomonas campestris* on tomato [68]. The control of these pathogens minimized the invasion of diseases. However, the security of crops using mature compost during vegetative growth and fruiting is significant to increasing farm output. As a result, the palatability of crops are enhanced. The appearance of crop are appealing to the eyes. More so, the volume of harvest in the market for final consumer is at maximum [67, 68]. Compost can be used as alternative to synthetic fertilizer which has been found to be detrimental to ecosystem through surface runoff [69, 70]. Most farmers in attempt to increase yield, applies synthetic fertilizer in excess. Excessive use of synthetic fertilizer increases yield at a diminishing rate because continuous addition of synthetic fertilizer become toxic to beneficial organisms and as well reduce yield [70]. Synthetic fertilizer infestation pests and disease organisms through competition from weed [71, 72]. It was also recorded in a findings that excessive use of synthetic fertilizer can accelerate early rot of food crop and vegetables before and after harvest [71, 72]. The palatability of food crop are negatively affected with the use of synthetic fertilizer. However, mature compost are naturally inclined. They produce beneficial organisms that fight pathogens. Mature compost releases nutrient gradually released into the soil. It increases soil moisture and aeration. Compost application to vegetables and food crop can be helpful at achieving food security if properly managed [73].

#### **8. Conclusions**

Invertebrate plays a significant in carbon cycle and green community development. It is a good source of protein. Little or no attention are given to these organisms. They provide the required energy needed to sustain biodiversity through composting. However, compost has been identified as organic component that

**73**

**Author details**

across the globe.

Alabi Olusoji David

Mangosuthu University of Technology, Durban, South Africa

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: oludavidsj@gmail.com

provided the original work is properly cited.

*Composting and Organic Waste Recycling a Better Option for Food Safety and Food Security*

contains requires micro and macro nutrients that is capable of restoring nutrient into the soil. In this case, plant and animal waste are of significant interest. Waste are subjected to either aerated or non-aerated temperature to produce a pathogen free compost. The end product contains some compounds that could stimulate development of plant and animal. Pretreatment are required at an appropriate temperature essentially to inactivate disease organisms and pathogens. Compost has been used as a supplement for animal feed, it reduces the cost of production. Likewise, disposal of organic waste in waterways or occupying large land mass in the community. Compost has been used to boost germination and growth of plant. It suppresses wide range of disease varying from one plant to the other. Likewise, safety standard must be ensured and storage of food to keep the public free of zoonotic diseases. In a nutshell, if compost are properly managed, it is capable of increasing food production. Wiping away malnutrition and poor access to food

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97683*

#### *Composting and Organic Waste Recycling a Better Option for Food Safety and Food Security DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97683*

contains requires micro and macro nutrients that is capable of restoring nutrient into the soil. In this case, plant and animal waste are of significant interest. Waste are subjected to either aerated or non-aerated temperature to produce a pathogen free compost. The end product contains some compounds that could stimulate development of plant and animal. Pretreatment are required at an appropriate temperature essentially to inactivate disease organisms and pathogens. Compost has been used as a supplement for animal feed, it reduces the cost of production. Likewise, disposal of organic waste in waterways or occupying large land mass in the community. Compost has been used to boost germination and growth of plant. It suppresses wide range of disease varying from one plant to the other. Likewise, safety standard must be ensured and storage of food to keep the public free of zoonotic diseases. In a nutshell, if compost are properly managed, it is capable of increasing food production. Wiping away malnutrition and poor access to food across the globe.
