**3. The shelf life of processed organic waste and relevance**

The efficiency of organic waste largely depend on its safety at acquiring security. This is required particularly when composing organic waste with the feed [16]. This prolonging the shell life of processed organic waste [17, 18]. The treatment of organic waste can be obtained by cooking, extrusion, pellatizing, dehydration, ensiling and probiotics [17, 18]. The shelf life of the organic waste are better prolonged with extrusion, pellatizing, and dehydration than cooking and ensiling [19]. The dehydration treatment is helpful when considering the treatment of resultant food waste in swine [19, 20]. The moisture content of organic waste varies between 50% and 85%. This may threatened the use of organic waste in animal feed but the application of adequate treatment reduced the moisture content to produce a safe organic waste [19, 20]. Adequate heat could prevent organic waste susceptibility to oxygen. This helps to prolong shelf life of waste during storage and as well prevent lipid peroxidation [20, 21]. Solar energy was identified to be economical and environmental viable at transforming organic waste into dried waste. Solar energy was used at pasteurizing and drying of organic waste. This process produce low carbon emissions and energy efficient [20, 21]. Likewise in a findings, it was also revealed that 92.74% dry matter was obtained from the use of solar energy. The crude proteins, EE and crude fiber content were 25.68%, 21.57% and 0.75% respectively [21, 22].

Furthermore, the quality and quantity of dietary proteins are of importance in poultry and swine feed [21, 22]. 15% - 23% of crude proteins was found in organic waste on a dry basis [22, 23]. The C.P obtained in organic waste in an experiment on a dry basis was estimated to be 18.9%. This was significantly higher than the conventional feed [22, 23]. The amino acid content of organic waste was higher compared to that of conventional feed [22, 23]. It was also revealed that the lysine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan content of organic waste was higher compare to the conventional feed while a similar result was obtained comparing the two diets [24]. Phosphorus and calcium are important element relevant for cell division and tissue formation. The availability of phosphorus and calcium was studied in an investigation [24]. It was found that organic waste contain 0.004% to 0.46%

**69**

*Composting and Organic Waste Recycling a Better Option for Food Safety and Food Security*

calcium on a dry basis [24, 25]. This has a similarity with result obtained with soyabean meal 0.27% - 0.47% with a C P of 47.2%. This was higher than result obtained from corn (0.01–0.03%) [24, 25]. The breeding of broiler was experimented using different concentration of organic waste. Result revealed that the dried leftover food produced 20.02% C P and 9.99% EE [25]. The concentration of DHA in meat from broiler group fed dried leftover was not significantly higher than the control group. It was also recorded that the arachidonic acid content in broiler meat was not different among the treatment. However, the leftover treatment produced a better result than the control [25]. The salt content in organic waste compared with conventional feed made from corn in an experiment. It was reported that salt content of organic waste was higher compare to the conventional feed [25, 26]. The salt content of organic waste was recorded to be between 2.0% to 2.5% and approximately 3.28% on a dry basis. The present of salt in animal diet was very helpful. It enhances palatability [26–28]. It prevent the growth mold. It regulates growth and performance of the animals [28, 29]. Adequate salt level provide a soft texture of pork. It was recorded in a study that the salt content of organic waste was higher compare to convention feed composed from corn and soyabeans [28, 29]. It was also found that the performance of poultry and pig was strictly due to high salt content. Organic waste can be used as a substitute for salt if properly incorporated into diet because high salt level may result into poisoning [29]. It may also be subjected to rancidity [29]. Animal feed contribute to alleviation of food security through utilization of organic waste. Some bioactive compound and nutrients are found helpful to animal feed [29]. The use of organic waste in poultry and pig was found to be promising.

Moreover, waste generated by animal compounds is a more serious problem than waste voided by humans. Human waste is treated before it is released into waterways, but animal waste is not or poorly processed [30]. It has been reported that disease organisms may be transmitted from animal to animal through the use of organic manure in feed processing. The transfer of these diseases may constitute a problem to animal and public health [31]. Chicken waste is well known for Salmonella and Campylobacter spp. [32]. Cattle are known to host a gram of cattle manure with up to 10 million Salmonella organisms [31, 32]. Several methods have been used by researchers to inactivate pathogens before they are introduced into animal feed. The use of the stack method was found to be effective by some researchers [31, 32]. Some Salmonella species require an approximate temperature of 63°C (145°F), whereas *E. coli* requires heat of approximately 68°C (153°F) [31, 32]. Fermentation was also used to breakdown the bacteria in manure [33, 34]. This was an ensilage process. It involves the ensiling of waste with various grasses stored in airtight silo. In this situation, higher temperatures is ideal for killing infectious organisms [34]. Under these conditions, poultry litter buffers acids that destroy bacteria [35, 36]. In other words, some bacteria and coliforms were not completely controlled by ensilage. In a different finding, it was also recorded that stacking and fermentation is not as effective as the use of heating and drying method [35–37]. This involves subjecting manure or litter to the hot air blast from the oven. The temperature here is approximately 150°C (300°F) or higher, depending on the method [36, 37]. Campylobacter jejuni, *E. coli* Samonella, germisia and Listeria

were found to survive prolonged anaerobic digestion [36, 37].

The use of organic manure in feed processing allows the transfer of diseasecausing bacteria to spread resilience strains that may not be associated with organic waste. Most of these diseases inactivate at different temperatures [35–37].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97683*

**4. Food waste and pathogens**

*Composting and Organic Waste Recycling a Better Option for Food Safety and Food Security DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97683*

calcium on a dry basis [24, 25]. This has a similarity with result obtained with soyabean meal 0.27% - 0.47% with a C P of 47.2%. This was higher than result obtained from corn (0.01–0.03%) [24, 25]. The breeding of broiler was experimented using different concentration of organic waste. Result revealed that the dried leftover food produced 20.02% C P and 9.99% EE [25]. The concentration of DHA in meat from broiler group fed dried leftover was not significantly higher than the control group. It was also recorded that the arachidonic acid content in broiler meat was not different among the treatment. However, the leftover treatment produced a better result than the control [25]. The salt content in organic waste compared with conventional feed made from corn in an experiment. It was reported that salt content of organic waste was higher compare to the conventional feed [25, 26]. The salt content of organic waste was recorded to be between 2.0% to 2.5% and approximately 3.28% on a dry basis. The present of salt in animal diet was very helpful. It enhances palatability [26–28]. It prevent the growth mold. It regulates growth and performance of the animals [28, 29]. Adequate salt level provide a soft texture of pork. It was recorded in a study that the salt content of organic waste was higher compare to convention feed composed from corn and soyabeans [28, 29]. It was also found that the performance of poultry and pig was strictly due to high salt content. Organic waste can be used as a substitute for salt if properly incorporated into diet because high salt level may result into poisoning [29]. It may also be subjected to rancidity [29]. Animal feed contribute to alleviation of food security through utilization of organic waste. Some bioactive compound and nutrients are found helpful to animal feed [29]. The use of organic waste in poultry and pig was found to be promising.

#### **4. Food waste and pathogens**

*Humic Substances*

to its efficiency [14, 15].

1.3 billion tons of food are produced globally and are wasted during production, postharvest, and processing [12, 13]. A huge portion of organic waste include edible and inedible food. Organic waste generated at the latter part of food supply is comparatively higher than at the early stage of the chain. It was also projected that increasing demand for animal product may result in high demand for feed particularly the coarse grains such as maize and protein meal by 2025 [12–14]. The conventional poultry and swine diet depend on maize and soyabean as energy and proteins sources [12–14]. As well, these same, staple food is largely consumed in many part of the world particularly in the developing countries [13, 14]. As a result, a notable increase in the cost of staple food for animal feed drives the cost of production. However, the likely solution for this could be organic waste from cereal grains and plant proteins sources used in animal nutrition. However, production cost is reduced with introduction of food waste due to its low cost compared to conventional feeds [13–15]. Food organic waste from poultry, cattle, etc. is mixed with livestock feed. This reduces the amount of waste disposal in the community [13–15]. In other words, waste retains nutritive value, which may reduce the cost of feeding. However, the waste, the type and quantity of other foodstuffs, the way the excrement is treated and the species to which the treated excrement is fed is related

**3. The shelf life of processed organic waste and relevance**

The efficiency of organic waste largely depend on its safety at acquiring security.

Furthermore, the quality and quantity of dietary proteins are of importance in poultry and swine feed [21, 22]. 15% - 23% of crude proteins was found in organic waste on a dry basis [22, 23]. The C.P obtained in organic waste in an experiment on a dry basis was estimated to be 18.9%. This was significantly higher than the conventional feed [22, 23]. The amino acid content of organic waste was higher compared to that of conventional feed [22, 23]. It was also revealed that the lysine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan content of organic waste was higher compare to the conventional feed while a similar result was obtained comparing the two diets [24]. Phosphorus and calcium are important element relevant for cell division and tissue formation. The availability of phosphorus and calcium was studied in an investigation [24]. It was found that organic waste contain 0.004% to 0.46%

This is required particularly when composing organic waste with the feed [16]. This prolonging the shell life of processed organic waste [17, 18]. The treatment of organic waste can be obtained by cooking, extrusion, pellatizing, dehydration, ensiling and probiotics [17, 18]. The shelf life of the organic waste are better prolonged with extrusion, pellatizing, and dehydration than cooking and ensiling [19]. The dehydration treatment is helpful when considering the treatment of resultant food waste in swine [19, 20]. The moisture content of organic waste varies between 50% and 85%. This may threatened the use of organic waste in animal feed but the application of adequate treatment reduced the moisture content to produce a safe organic waste [19, 20]. Adequate heat could prevent organic waste susceptibility to oxygen. This helps to prolong shelf life of waste during storage and as well prevent lipid peroxidation [20, 21]. Solar energy was identified to be economical and environmental viable at transforming organic waste into dried waste. Solar energy was used at pasteurizing and drying of organic waste. This process produce low carbon emissions and energy efficient [20, 21]. Likewise in a findings, it was also revealed that 92.74% dry matter was obtained from the use of solar energy. The crude proteins, EE and crude fiber content were 25.68%, 21.57% and 0.75% respec-

**68**

tively [21, 22].

Moreover, waste generated by animal compounds is a more serious problem than waste voided by humans. Human waste is treated before it is released into waterways, but animal waste is not or poorly processed [30]. It has been reported that disease organisms may be transmitted from animal to animal through the use of organic manure in feed processing. The transfer of these diseases may constitute a problem to animal and public health [31]. Chicken waste is well known for Salmonella and Campylobacter spp. [32]. Cattle are known to host a gram of cattle manure with up to 10 million Salmonella organisms [31, 32]. Several methods have been used by researchers to inactivate pathogens before they are introduced into animal feed. The use of the stack method was found to be effective by some researchers [31, 32]. Some Salmonella species require an approximate temperature of 63°C (145°F), whereas *E. coli* requires heat of approximately 68°C (153°F) [31, 32]. Fermentation was also used to breakdown the bacteria in manure [33, 34]. This was an ensilage process. It involves the ensiling of waste with various grasses stored in airtight silo. In this situation, higher temperatures is ideal for killing infectious organisms [34]. Under these conditions, poultry litter buffers acids that destroy bacteria [35, 36]. In other words, some bacteria and coliforms were not completely controlled by ensilage. In a different finding, it was also recorded that stacking and fermentation is not as effective as the use of heating and drying method [35–37]. This involves subjecting manure or litter to the hot air blast from the oven. The temperature here is approximately 150°C (300°F) or higher, depending on the method [36, 37]. Campylobacter jejuni, *E. coli* Samonella, germisia and Listeria were found to survive prolonged anaerobic digestion [36, 37].

The use of organic manure in feed processing allows the transfer of diseasecausing bacteria to spread resilience strains that may not be associated with organic waste. Most of these diseases inactivate at different temperatures [35–37].


#### **Table 2.**

*Lethal- time conditions for some common pathogen sourced: [2].*

In addition, European safety rules for food should be followed by a high level of protection of human health, and the production of edible terrestrial invertebrates as food should be safe and wholesome and reared and marketed as food [37–42]. The lethal time conditions for some common pathogens are shown in the **Table 2**.
