Forensic Osteology and Identification

*Anil Garg and Nisha Goyal*

#### **Abstract**

Every human corpse is unique. There are different religions in different parts of the world which adopt a variety of ways to dispose of corpses. Dead bodies can be found unattended, dug up, mutilated by the perpetrators of crimes, and eaten by wild animals in lonely unattended places. In these situations, forensic anthropologists or anatomists are consulted by the state authorities to help them to provide justice to the deceased person. The first and foremost scientific information desired by authorities is identification of the corpse, cause of death of the human body and weapon used, if applicable. Identification can be done by studying the bones of the human corpse during autopsy examination and if unknown skeletal remains are all that is available, examination of each bone is required. Forensic anthropologists or pathologists are asked to identify race, sex and age as important parameters of the identification. In this chapter, we will enumerate various parameters for identification. We will discuss race, age and sex from various bones as part of forensic oesteology.

**Keywords:** bones, index, skull, femur, ossification centre, race, age, sex, skull, pelvis, mandible, rhomboid fossa

#### **1. Introduction**

The human corpse is more than a utilitarian object; it has sacred meaning. Every religious faith has beliefs pertaining to the treatment of corpses and there are laws that govern the treatment and the burial of the dead. While these laws have recognized the corpse's instrumental value as an object for scientific study, clinical teaching and commercial gain, they generally accommodate the desire to respect the remains [1].

Forensic experts, in particular anthropologists, frequently are asked to examine unknown corpses before final rituals for identification in medico-legal cases. Identification is the determination of the individuality of a person. This can be for either a living or dead person. Various parameters for identification of human dead bodies are enumerated below.


**2.2 Nasal index**

rhine or short broad nose [4].

*Forensic Osteology and Identification*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99358*

Yoruba males and females [5].

humerus head.

**107**

At 6th month: fibula distal end.

Leptorrhine: Lesser than 70. Caucoids

Platyrrhine: greater than 85; Negroids

Mesorrhine: 70–85 Mangloids

by 100.

**3. Age**

Nasal anthropometry is the study of proportion, shape and size of the nose in human beings. The nasal index is the ratio of nasal width to nasal height multiplied

It also exhibits sexual differences and has become an important tool in forensic studies. The general shape of the nasal base has long been broadly classified as the leptorrhine or long/narrow nose, the mesorrhine or medium nose and the platyr-

In a study in Nigeria on Igbo and Yoruba males and females, it was observed that both had the same type of nose Platyrrhine, but differences still existed. The report showed that the Igbo males and females had mean nasal indices of 95.8 � 0.44 and 90.8�0.61 respectively while the Yoruba males and females had mean nasal indices of 90.0�0.38 and 88.1�0.47 respectively. The Igbo (Total) had mean nasal indices of 94.1 � 0.37 while the Yoruba (Total) had mean nasal indices of 89.2�0.30. The mean nasal indices of Igbo males and females were significantly higher than those of

Age determination from humans is one of the important tasks desired by law enforcement agencies for medico-legal cases. Absolute or chronological age is the number of years an individual has lived since birth. In other words, it is the age that is mentioned on the passports or other important documents of the person. Biological age is the age of the person gauged from the physical wellbeing of the person [6]. Environment, health conditions, exercise, yoga and healthy eating habits affect the biological age, not the chronological age. The difference between chronological

In fetuses and children, age can be estimated from the appearance of ossification centres, development of bones and eruption and calcification of the teeth. There are approximately 806 ossification centers at the 11th prenatal week, 406 ossification centres at birth and 206 bones in the adult. The ossification centres enlarge in size and joints to nearby ossification centres and thus give rise to the bones in the adult skeleton [7]. A fetus' age is best given in lunar months although it is also given in weeks of pregnancy. In decomposed fetal bodies, it is best to have the fetal body X-rayed [8]. But in skeletonised fetuses, various bones dissociate, thus X-rays are not helpful. The presence of the primary ossification centre of the talus, calcaneum, cuboid and the secondary ossification centre in the femur and tibia around the knee joint point toward

and biological age is minimal in juveniles, but it increases afterwards [7].

full term pregnancy [9]. The major ossification centres appear [10] as follows:

At Second Month: capitate, hamate, lateral cuneiform. At 3 month: femus head, capitulum, tibia distal end.

At 7th month: humerus, greater tuberosity, radius distal end.

At Birth: calcaneum, talus, femur distal end, tibia proximal end, cuboid,

Nasal Index ¼ Nasal Width � 100*=*Nasal Height (2)

4. Stature 5.Teeth 6.Hair 7.Religion 8.Fingerprints 9.Footprints 10.Tattoos 11. Scar marks 12.Anthropological factors

A thread that binds parameters such as race, sex, age and stature is human osteology or forensic Osteology. Bones and teeth of the skeleton resist putrefaction or decay. Hence they are a cornerstone for the determination of individual existence. Scientists employ their knowledge of the human skeleton in interpreting the bones and thus help in identification.

Human forensic osteology is the study or application or knowledge of human bones in the field of forensic science to assist the administration of justice.

In this chapter, we will mainly consider race, age and sex parameters.

#### **2. Race**

Human bone measurements play vital role in the determination of race. The important bones that are useful for race determination are the skull and the long bones of the limbs. Various indexes are given for these.

Index is defined as a percentage expression of the ratio of a smaller dimension over the larger one.

#### **2.1 Cepahalic index**

The cephalic index (CI) is calculated from the skull according to the following equation:

$$(\text{cephailic width} / \text{cephailic length}) \times 100\tag{1}$$

Cephalic length is the distance between the most anterior and posterior point of the outer table of the skull or occipitofrontal diameter (OFD). Cephalic width is the distance between the outer skull tables at the widest points of the skull or biparietal diameter BPD [2]. Cohens [3] classifies race on the basis of cephalic index as dolichocephaly (long headed) up to 75.9 e.g. Pure Aryans, Caucoids and Negroids, mesocephaly (round headed): 76.8–80.9 e.g. in few Caucoids (Europeans) and Mangoloids, and brachycephaly (Short headed): 81.0–85.4 e.g. Mongoloids, with hyperbrachycephaly exceeding 85.5 e.g. Kyushu of Japan.
