**Aspirations of the Book**

*Forensic Analysis - Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope* is an innovative and contemporary international collaboration by scholars in medicine, science and law. It does not purport to be the last or the authoritative word on any of the diverse medical, scientific or legal issues that it canvasses. My hope as its editor is that it raises new issues, provides helpful information about emerging and conventional areas of forensic medico-scientific investigation, and gives a fillip to the development of rigorous international standards so that expert opinion evidence utilised by criminal investigators and relied upon by the courts will be both reliable and valid. In these circumstances, miscarriages of justice will be minimised, the respect of the community for the legal system will be vindicated, and the integrity of the many disciplines of forensic science and medicine will be enhanced.

> **Ian Freckelton AO QC** Barrister, Castan Chambers, Melbourne, Australia

Judge, Supreme Court of Nauru, Republic of Nauru

Professor of Law and Psychiatry, University of Melbourne, Australia

Adjunct Professor of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, Australia

> Adjunct Professor, Johns Hopkins University, United States

**IV**

Kingdom and Australia. The conclusion reached by the chapter is that the reception of forensic gait analysis evidence by the courts is dangerous and, as yet premature, until further development of statistically rigorous databases of gait characteristics.

Al-Dalmoshi et al. (Chapter 2) explain the ways in which **mitochondrial DNA** has the potential to be an important tool for human identification and differentiating between human and animal blood at crime scenes. In extreme conditions nuclear DNA is adversely affected or even destroyed, but mitochondrial DNA has characteristics that can be valuable for forensic purposes; amongst other things, it contains multiple copies and resists harsh and unstable conditions. It can be of particular utility in investigating blood sports and the provenance of blood samples found in diverse crime scenes.

Sahajpal et al. (Chapter 3) identify the threat to the environment and biodiversity from the commission of crimes involving wildlife. They note also the monetary values of the illegal trade in wildlife and therefore the temptation for the unscrupulous to engage in conduct that jeopardises the viability of many species. They review the three most frequently used techniques in **wildlife forensic investigation:** microscopy, DNA analysis and isotope analysis. They observe that some of the techniques employed in wildlife forensics require standardisation and that there are particular analytical

Ioganson et al. (Chapter 4) review the reliability and reproducibility of **DNA profiling from degraded samples** by reference to extensive experience with analysis of bones and

Kumar et al. (Chapter 6) demonstrate the many ways in which **tool mark analysis** can be utilised in criminal investigations. They review contemporary methods for forensic tool mark analysis and interpretation, noting that it can constitute an adjunct for contributions as diverse as anthropology, archaeology and pathology. They identify the need for forensic examination to be rational, unambiguous, balanced and rigorous.

Garg et al. (Chapter 7) review methods in **forensic osteology** for identifying deceased persons by reference to race, age and sex from bones. They argue that the discipline has emerged as an important means of identification within the criminal justice system and explain how certain bones can provide information about gender, race and other

Shetty and Shetty (Chapter 8) describe the field of **forensic diagnostics**, utilising biomarkers. They identify that pregnancy diagnosis from traces of blood can assist in finding a missing woman who is pregnant and in investigating illegal abortions. They also review the evidence for the utility of the technique for investigating sexual assaults,

Scendoni (Chapter 9) reviews the literature on the forensic application of **saliva testing** as an alternative biological matrix to blood for the determination of xenobiotics and/ or drugs of abuse and their metabolites in both the living and the dead. He highlights

individualising characteristics relevant to criminal investigations.

maternal substance abuse and paternity testing.

Knoops (Chapter 5) describes the relatively new DNA technique of **probabilistic genotyping**, which has the potential to provide a determination of complex DNA profiles from multiple contributors. The author compares its utility to that of mainstream DNA techniques such as Combined Probability of Inclusion. The chapter highlights the potential pitfalls in traditional DNA test results where the samples are complex, as well as the importance of the information provided to the DNA tester. The chapter also emphasises the potential for probabilistic genotyping to correct wrongful convictions and to discern the real perpetrator of a crime where there are a number of suspects.

challenges when evidentiary material is very limited.

tissues in unidentified corpses in Russia.

Dedication

*For Otis and Penny,*

*The Best of Pandemic Companions*
