**5. Conclusions**

normative samples consisted of 116 males and 84 females. After careful macroscopic examination, Loth discovered a new trait known as flexure at the level of the molar occlusal surface in adult males. It is a male developmental character that is developed after adolescence. Females retain the straight juvenile shape of the mandibular ramus. Since male develop distinct angulation of the posterior border of mandibular ramus, it usually appears near the neck of condyle or along with gonial prominence or eversion. In the sample of 200, sex was able to be determined in 99% of mandibles. The same parameter was also applied to discarded or pathological

**S. No Feature Male mandible Female mandible** 1 General appearance Larger, thicker Smaller, thinner 2 Chin (symphysis menti) Square or U-shaped Rounded

*Forensic Analysis - Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope*

4 Angle of mandible (gonion) Everted Inverted 5 Body height at symphysis Greater Smaller

7 Ramus flexure Rearward angulation of the

*Showing morphological differences for sex determination from mandible.*

6 Ascending ramus Greater breadth Smaller breadth

8 Muscular markings Prominent Not prominent

3 Angle of body with ramus Less obtuse (< 125°), prominent More obtuse, not prominent

posterior border of ramus

Straight ramus

Kemkes-Grottenthaler [38] investigated the reliability of two mandibular traits: ramus flexure and gonial eversion. The study was done on two samples, one of forensic (N = 153) and one of archeological provenance (N = 80). It was observed that for ramus flexure, male accuracy was only 66%, while female accuracy was even lower (32%). Overall accuracy was 59%. For gonial eversion, a similar picture emerged (75.4% for males, 45.2% for females and 69.3% overall accuracy). Both

With the development of multiple discriminant function analysis, formulae for various populations have been published taking into consideration various inter-

The scapula is not widely used for sex discrimination. However, a few studies are available. Iordanidis [39] has taken into account scapular height and breadth, total length of the spine and width of the glenoid cavity, calculated by upper and

**Traits Male Female** Scapular Height >157 <144 Scapular Breadth .106 <93 Total Length of spine >141 <128 Width of glenoid cavity >29 <26

samples of mandibles; it yielded 91% accuracy in sex determination.

these indicators are affected by intra- as well as inter-observer bias.

lower limit for discriminating between each sex (**Table 10**).

*Showing sex determination by scapula measurements (from Iordanidis [39]).*

**4.5. Scapula**

**Table 10.**

**118**

**Table 9.**

correlated dimensions as well as the degree of difference between sexes.

Forensic osteology is an important part of identification for the criminal justice system. In the past, we talked about morphological ways of sexing more then metric methods and now neural networking is coming for sexing. Further studies must be done so that we can enrich our knowledge.
