*4.2.1 Sacral index*

The sacral index [30] is given by dividing the hundred times length of anterior superior breadth of the sacrum at the first sacral vertebrae with anterior length of sacrum. The anterior length was measured along the midline from the anterosuperior margin of the promontory to the middle of antero-inferior margin of the last sacral vertebra. The anterior superior breadth was measured between the lateralmost points of the ala of the sacrum.

Sacral Index ¼ ð100 ∗ Anterior superior breadth of sacrum*=*Anterior length of the sacrumÞ (7)

The study [30] also calculated the demarcating point (DP) which increases the accuracy by 100%. The range of sacral index in male is 80.7–106.4 and in females is 93.1–108.8 and DP for sacral index in males is less than 90.29 and in females is greater than 112.43.

In a study [31] done on 150 fully ossified dry human sacrums (59 male and 91 females), it was observed that the mean straight length of sacrum in the male and in the female was 104.27�5.76 mm and 92.82�7.59 mm respectively. The mean width of sacrum in the male and the female was 99.51�5.80 mm and 102.98�6.69 mm respectively. The mean sacral indices were 95.42�3.14 and 111.27�7.66 in males and females respectively.


**Table 7.**

*Showing difference in human sacrum with respect to sex.*

#### *4.2.2 Kimura base wing index*

Kimura [32] examined 300 sacrums (103 Japanese sacra from the Yokohama City Medical School, 100 American whites and 97 American blacks) and obtained the transverse width of the sacral base, transverse width of the wing and the index as follows.

Kimura base wing index

¼ ð100 ∗ transverse width of wing*=*Breadth or transverse width of Ist sacral vertebraÞ (8)

The Kimura base wing index is also known as the Alar Index. In males it is less than 65 and in females: it is more than 80.

Patel [33] observed that the sacral index results are more reliable than the Kimura base wing index.

Valojerdy studied 153 dry human sacrums of Indian origin [34], and found that the size of the articular surface was studied in sacro-iliac joints. He found that the articular surface on sacral and iliac surfaces in males is longer and larger in surface area than in females.

#### *4.2.3 Corporo-basal index*

The corporo-basal index is the transverse diameter of body of the sacrum S1 when the breadth of the sacrum is 100

Corporo � basal Index

<sup>¼</sup> Transverse diameter of body of S1 <sup>∗</sup> <sup>100</sup>*=*Maximum breadth of sacrum

(9)

The above features are examined independently and scores 1 to 5 is given. A score of 1 is definitely female, 2 is probably female, 3 is ambiguous, 4 is probably

prominent

**S. No Feature Male skull Female skull**

rounded

4 Glabella Prominent Less prominent 5 Supraorbital/Superciliary ridge Prominent Less prominent 6 Frontonasal junction Distinct angulation Smoothly curved

8 Frontal and parietal eminence Less prominent Prominent 9 Zygomatic arch Prominent Not prominent

12 Digastric groove Deep Shallow 13 Condylar facet Long, narrow Short, broad 14 Palate Large, U-shaped, broad Small, parabolic 15 Foramen magnum Relatively large, long Small, round

16 External auditory meatus Bony ridge along upper border

*Showing morphological differences in male and female skulls.*

3 Cranial capacity More capacious (1450–1550 cc) Less capacious (1300–

7 Orbits Square, rounded margins, small Rounded, sharp margins,

11 Mastoid process Large, round, blunt Small, smooth, pointed

marked muscular ridges

Smaller, lighter, walls thinner, smoother

Vertical, round, full, infantile, smooth

1350 cc)

large

Often absent

Prominent Not prominent

1 General appearance Larger, heavier, rugged,

2 Forehead Receding, irregular, rough, less

The mandible is a very important bone in sex determination. Stewart [17] observed that if the mandible along with the skull are the only available bones out of skeletal remains, sex can be determined with 90% accuracy. The projection of mental eminence is one of five characteristics suggested by Buikstra and Ubelakar

Loth [37] examined a sample of 300 mandibles from the Dart collection with known sex. 100 showed bony pathologies and tooth loss. Thus these pathological samples of mandibles were not considered in main study. Of the remaining 200,

Rogers [36] examined 46 identified skulls from a cemetery in Belleville, Canada. He examined 17 morphological features of the skull commonly used to determine the sex of unknown skeletal remains. He observed that traits such as nasal aperture, zygomatic extension, malar size/rugosity, and supraorbital ridge are the most useful; chin form and nuchal crest are the second most useful followed by mastoid size as a tertiary consideration; nasal size and mandibular symphysis/ramus size rank fourth; forehead shape ranks fifth; and palate size/shape are sixth. Skull size/architecture provides an internal standard to assess the relative sizes of other traits.

male and 5 is definitely male.

10 Occipital area (Muscle markings and protuberance)

*Forensic Osteology and Identification*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99358*

[15] for sex discrimination (**Table 9**).

**4.4 Mandible**

**117**

**Table 8.**

Maddikunta [35] studied 60 adult sacrums from Telengana, India (27 male, 33 female) and calculated the corpora-basal index and demarking point and observed that the range in males is 39.0–53.77 and in females is 27.43–32.67 and the demarking point in males and females is >57.81 mm and <32.02 mm respectively.

#### **4.3 Skull**

Th skull is very important for aging and sex differentiation. Sexing can be done with the help of morphological as well as metric characters. As Krogman [16] has identified, if only the skull is available from bony remains, sex can be given correctly up to 98% of the time (**Table 3**). Differences in male and female skull on the basis of morphological characters are given below in **Table 8**.

Buikstra et al. [15] concluded that five traits of the skull should be regarded as able to differentiate sex:

i. Robusticity of the nuchal crest,

ii. Size of the mastoid process,


#### *Forensic Osteology and Identification DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99358*


#### **Table 8.**

*4.2.2 Kimura base wing index*

Kimura base wing index

Kimura base wing index.

area than in females.

*4.2.3 Corporo-basal index*

Corporo � basal Index

able to differentiate sex:

**4.3 Skull**

**116**

than 65 and in females: it is more than 80.

when the breadth of the sacrum is 100

as follows.

Kimura [32] examined 300 sacrums (103 Japanese sacra from the Yokohama City Medical School, 100 American whites and 97 American blacks) and obtained the transverse width of the sacral base, transverse width of the wing and the index

*Forensic Analysis - Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope*

¼ ð100 ∗ transverse width of wing*=*Breadth or transverse width of Ist sacral vertebraÞ

The Kimura base wing index is also known as the Alar Index. In males it is less

Valojerdy studied 153 dry human sacrums of Indian origin [34], and found that the size of the articular surface was studied in sacro-iliac joints. He found that the articular surface on sacral and iliac surfaces in males is longer and larger in surface

The corporo-basal index is the transverse diameter of body of the sacrum S1

<sup>¼</sup> Transverse diameter of body of S1 <sup>∗</sup> <sup>100</sup>*=*Maximum breadth of sacrum

Maddikunta [35] studied 60 adult sacrums from Telengana, India (27 male, 33 female) and calculated the corpora-basal index and demarking point and observed

demarking point in males and females is >57.81 mm and <32.02 mm respectively.

Th skull is very important for aging and sex differentiation. Sexing can be done with the help of morphological as well as metric characters. As Krogman [16] has identified, if only the skull is available from bony remains, sex can be given correctly up to 98% of the time (**Table 3**). Differences in male and female skull on the

Buikstra et al. [15] concluded that five traits of the skull should be regarded as

that the range in males is 39.0–53.77 and in females is 27.43–32.67 and the

basis of morphological characters are given below in **Table 8**.

i. Robusticity of the nuchal crest,

iv. Prominence of the glabella, and

v. Projection of the mental eminence

iii. Sharpness of the supraorbital margin,

ii. Size of the mastoid process,

Patel [33] observed that the sacral index results are more reliable than the

(8)

(9)

*Showing morphological differences in male and female skulls.*

The above features are examined independently and scores 1 to 5 is given. A score of 1 is definitely female, 2 is probably female, 3 is ambiguous, 4 is probably male and 5 is definitely male.

Rogers [36] examined 46 identified skulls from a cemetery in Belleville, Canada. He examined 17 morphological features of the skull commonly used to determine the sex of unknown skeletal remains. He observed that traits such as nasal aperture, zygomatic extension, malar size/rugosity, and supraorbital ridge are the most useful; chin form and nuchal crest are the second most useful followed by mastoid size as a tertiary consideration; nasal size and mandibular symphysis/ramus size rank fourth; forehead shape ranks fifth; and palate size/shape are sixth. Skull size/architecture provides an internal standard to assess the relative sizes of other traits.

#### **4.4 Mandible**

The mandible is a very important bone in sex determination. Stewart [17] observed that if the mandible along with the skull are the only available bones out of skeletal remains, sex can be determined with 90% accuracy. The projection of mental eminence is one of five characteristics suggested by Buikstra and Ubelakar [15] for sex discrimination (**Table 9**).

Loth [37] examined a sample of 300 mandibles from the Dart collection with known sex. 100 showed bony pathologies and tooth loss. Thus these pathological samples of mandibles were not considered in main study. Of the remaining 200,


**4.6. Clavicle**

for sex discrimination.

*Forensic Osteology and Identification*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99358*

**5. Conclusions**

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

**119**

No conflict of interest is present.

done so that we can enrich our knowledge.

The clavicle is also used very rarely in the discrimination of sex from skeletal remains. However, recently a number of authors have show, interest in the clavicle

The costoclavicular (rhomboid) ligament joins the first rib anterior to the clavicle to give stability to the pectoral girdle. During this process, sometimes it leaves a depression known as the rhomboid fossa or tubercle or roughened impression, deep fossa or no trace at all. Rogers [40] found correlation with the rhomboid fossa and sex. If the rhomboid fossa is present on the clavicle, the clavicle is of male sex.

Forensic osteology is an important part of identification for the criminal justice system. In the past, we talked about morphological ways of sexing more then metric methods and now neural networking is coming for sexing. Further studies must be

We want to thank open source Intech Publishers and the editor of Forensic Analysis who invited us to write a chapter in this book. We also would like to thank all the authors whose hard work, articles and literature make our knowledge and understanding rich. But, at this stage of life, we are still learning. This concept of open source publication is very encouraging for all those who cannot pay and want to learn. This is our effort to reproduce the work of all the referenced authors and editors in our own language for the better understanding of our readers. Thanks.

**Table 9.**

*Showing morphological differences for sex determination from mandible.*

normative samples consisted of 116 males and 84 females. After careful macroscopic examination, Loth discovered a new trait known as flexure at the level of the molar occlusal surface in adult males. It is a male developmental character that is developed after adolescence. Females retain the straight juvenile shape of the mandibular ramus. Since male develop distinct angulation of the posterior border of mandibular ramus, it usually appears near the neck of condyle or along with gonial prominence or eversion. In the sample of 200, sex was able to be determined in 99% of mandibles. The same parameter was also applied to discarded or pathological samples of mandibles; it yielded 91% accuracy in sex determination.

Kemkes-Grottenthaler [38] investigated the reliability of two mandibular traits: ramus flexure and gonial eversion. The study was done on two samples, one of forensic (N = 153) and one of archeological provenance (N = 80). It was observed that for ramus flexure, male accuracy was only 66%, while female accuracy was even lower (32%). Overall accuracy was 59%. For gonial eversion, a similar picture emerged (75.4% for males, 45.2% for females and 69.3% overall accuracy). Both these indicators are affected by intra- as well as inter-observer bias.

With the development of multiple discriminant function analysis, formulae for various populations have been published taking into consideration various intercorrelated dimensions as well as the degree of difference between sexes.

#### **4.5. Scapula**

The scapula is not widely used for sex discrimination. However, a few studies are available. Iordanidis [39] has taken into account scapular height and breadth, total length of the spine and width of the glenoid cavity, calculated by upper and lower limit for discriminating between each sex (**Table 10**).


**Table 10.**

*Showing sex determination by scapula measurements (from Iordanidis [39]).*
