**3. Age**

Age determination from humans is one of the important tasks desired by law enforcement agencies for medico-legal cases. Absolute or chronological age is the number of years an individual has lived since birth. In other words, it is the age that is mentioned on the passports or other important documents of the person. Biological age is the age of the person gauged from the physical wellbeing of the person [6]. Environment, health conditions, exercise, yoga and healthy eating habits affect the biological age, not the chronological age. The difference between chronological and biological age is minimal in juveniles, but it increases afterwards [7].

In fetuses and children, age can be estimated from the appearance of ossification centres, development of bones and eruption and calcification of the teeth. There are approximately 806 ossification centers at the 11th prenatal week, 406 ossification centres at birth and 206 bones in the adult. The ossification centres enlarge in size and joints to nearby ossification centres and thus give rise to the bones in the adult skeleton [7]. A fetus' age is best given in lunar months although it is also given in weeks of pregnancy. In decomposed fetal bodies, it is best to have the fetal body X-rayed [8]. But in skeletonised fetuses, various bones dissociate, thus X-rays are not helpful. The presence of the primary ossification centre of the talus, calcaneum, cuboid and the secondary ossification centre in the femur and tibia around the knee joint point toward full term pregnancy [9]. The major ossification centres appear [10] as follows:

At Birth: calcaneum, talus, femur distal end, tibia proximal end, cuboid, humerus head.

At Second Month: capitate, hamate, lateral cuneiform.

At 3 month: femus head, capitulum, tibia distal end.

At 6th month: fibula distal end.

At 7th month: humerus, greater tuberosity, radius distal end.

At 10th month: triquetrum. At 11th month: third finger-first phalanx, first toe-second phalanx. At 12th month: second finger-first phalanx, fourth finger-first phalanx, first finger-second phalanx. At 13th month: third toe-first phalanx, second metacarpal, medial cuneiform.

At 14th month: fourth toe – first phalanx, second toe – first phalanx fifth toesecond phalanx.

At 15th month: third metacarpal, second toe-second phalanx, fifth finger-first phalanx.

At 16 month: fourth toe-second phalanx, fourth metacarpal.

At 18th month: fifth metacarpal, second, third and fourth finger-second phalanx.

At 20th month: first toe-first phalanx, middle cuneiform [10].

Fetal age can be determined by crown heel length (CHL). According to Hasse's rule which is a crude method to determine fetal age, in the first 5 months of fetal life, the square root of crown heel length measured in cm, will give the age of fetus in months. As with the Morrison rule, after five months of fetal life, the crown heel length in cm is divided by the number five to reach the fetal age in months.

In the mandible and maxilla, the primary centre of ossification appears at 6 weeks, while in frontal bones ossification begins in 6–7 weeks, and in the temporal bone, ossification appears in 7–8 weeks. In occipital bone, ossification centre appears in 8–10 weeks of intrauterine life [11].

The appearance of secondary ossification centre [11] appear as shown in **Table 1**. In adult skeletonised remains, epiphyseal closure or fusion is more commonly seen than ossification centres. This process of closure usually starts from 12 to 14 years and chronologically happens earlier in females as compared to males.

Stevenson [12] described four stages of fusion as follows:


different views. Sternebra are numbered from upwards to downwards as 1 to 4. Sternebra 3 fuses with 4 between the ages 4 and 15. Sternebra 2 fuses with 1 and 3 by the ages of between 11 and 20. The manubrium fuses with sternebra 1 by between the ages of 15 and 25 years [7]. The xiphoid fuses with sternebra 4 in

**Sr. No. Bones Parts Age**

*Forensic Osteology and Identification*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99358*

Shaft Birth Medial Epicondyle 12–14 Lateral Epicondyle 19–20 Humeral shaft Birth Humeral head 2–6 months Humeral Capitulum By 1st Year Humeral Greater Tubercle 6 months-2 years Humeral Lesser Tubercle 4+ years Humeral medial epicondyle 4+ years Humeral Trochlea 8 year Humeral Lateral Epicondyle 10th year Radius Shaft Birth Radial distal Epiphysis 1–2 years Radial head 5th year Radial styloid process 8th year Ulnar shaft Birth Ulnar distal Epiphysis 5–7 years Ulnar styloid process and olecranon 8–10 years

Pelvis Birth Femoral shaft Birth Femoral distal epiphysis Birth Femoral Greater trochanter 2–5 years Femoral lesser trochanter 7–12 years Tibial Shaft Birth Tibial proximal epiphysis Birth Tibial Medial Malleolus 3–5 years Tibial Tuberosity 8–13 years Fibular Shaft Birth Fibular distal epiphysis 9–12 years

Garg [14] conducted a radiological study on 150 living subjects by doing lateral

view X-rays of the sternum in the age group of 35–65 years whose exact age is known by available official documents and where the entire sternum was intact without disease and deformity. He concluded that complete fusion of the

manubrium fused with body of sternum by 65 years.

*Showing appearance secondary ossification Centre from bones.*

xiphisternun with the body of the sternum occurred by 56–59 years and only 40%

older age.

**109**

**Table 1.**

Loth [13] described that the order of epiphyseal closure of various joints is as follows. First the elbow is followed by the hip, followed by the ankle, followed by the knee, followed by the wrist, and last in the shoulder joint.

#### **3.1 Sternum**

The sternum is made of the manubrium, body of the sternum and the xiphisternum. The body of the sternum is the middle-most part and is composed of four parts. The fusion of the sternum is variable. Different authors have expressed

At 10th month: triquetrum.

finger-second phalanx.

second phalanx.

phalanx.

phalanx.

**3.1 Sternum**

**108**

At 11th month: third finger-first phalanx, first toe-second phalanx.

*Forensic Analysis - Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope*

At 16 month: fourth toe-second phalanx, fourth metacarpal.

At 20th month: first toe-first phalanx, middle cuneiform [10].

length in cm is divided by the number five to reach the fetal age in months. In the mandible and maxilla, the primary centre of ossification appears at 6 weeks, while in frontal bones ossification begins in 6–7 weeks, and in the temporal bone, ossification appears in 7–8 weeks. In occipital bone, ossification centre

Stevenson [12] described four stages of fusion as follows:

epiphysis and diaphysis is serrated or saw-toothed.

the knee, followed by the wrist, and last in the shoulder joint.

appears in 8–10 weeks of intrauterine life [11].

At 12th month: second finger-first phalanx, fourth finger-first phalanx, first

At 13th month: third toe-first phalanx, second metacarpal, medial cuneiform. At 14th month: fourth toe – first phalanx, second toe – first phalanx fifth toe-

At 15th month: third metacarpal, second toe-second phalanx, fifth finger-first

Fetal age can be determined by crown heel length (CHL). According to Hasse's rule which is a crude method to determine fetal age, in the first 5 months of fetal life, the square root of crown heel length measured in cm, will give the age of fetus in months. As with the Morrison rule, after five months of fetal life, the crown heel

The appearance of secondary ossification centre [11] appear as shown in **Table 1**. In adult skeletonised remains, epiphyseal closure or fusion is more commonly seen than ossification centres. This process of closure usually starts from 12 to 14 years and chronologically happens earlier in females as compared to males.

1.First Stage or No fusion: On gross examination of skeletal remains, there is a clear cut hiatus in between the epiphysis and diaphysis. The margins of the

2. Second Stage or Beginning of fusion: There is a clear cut line in between the epiphysis and diaphysis. The first phase hiatus is replaced by formation of new bone leaving only a line of separation. The saw-toothed appearance of margins in the epiphysis or diaphysis as evident in the first stage, is also blurred or lost.

4.Fourth stage or stage of complete union: This stage represents complete fusion. Sometimes, a very faint epiphyseal line is appreciable throughout life.

Loth [13] described that the order of epiphyseal closure of various joints is as follows. First the elbow is followed by the hip, followed by the ankle, followed by

The sternum is made of the manubrium, body of the sternum and the xiphisternum. The body of the sternum is the middle-most part and is composed of four parts. The fusion of the sternum is variable. Different authors have expressed

3.Third stage or recent union: The clear cut line in the second stage is as appreciable as the fine line. This stage is sometimes difficult to appreciate.

At 18th month: fifth metacarpal, second, third and fourth finger-second


#### **Table 1.**

*Showing appearance secondary ossification Centre from bones.*

different views. Sternebra are numbered from upwards to downwards as 1 to 4. Sternebra 3 fuses with 4 between the ages 4 and 15. Sternebra 2 fuses with 1 and 3 by the ages of between 11 and 20. The manubrium fuses with sternebra 1 by between the ages of 15 and 25 years [7]. The xiphoid fuses with sternebra 4 in older age.

Garg [14] conducted a radiological study on 150 living subjects by doing lateral view X-rays of the sternum in the age group of 35–65 years whose exact age is known by available official documents and where the entire sternum was intact without disease and deformity. He concluded that complete fusion of the xiphisternun with the body of the sternum occurred by 56–59 years and only 40% manubrium fused with body of sternum by 65 years.


**Table 2.**

*Showing estimation of age by cranial suturel closure [6] by mean Acsadi score.*

#### **3.2 Cranial sutures**

Cranial sutures are extensively studied by different authors for age estimation. Cranial Sutures usually fuse in adult life except the metopic suture. The metopic suture fuses by the age of 1 to 4 years. The fusion of the cranial suture in adult life is studied both endocranially and ectocranially. Cranial sutures are assessed in three sections or parts: palate is also studied along with endocranial and ectocranial study of cranial sutures.

Krogman [16] studied a sample of 750 adult skeletons (white and black, male and female) from the Harmann-Todd collection and Stewart [17] also determined

**by Krogman [16]**

1 Entire Skeleton 100% 90–95% 2 Pelvis + Skull 98% — 3 Pelvis + Long Bones 98% — 4 Skull Alone 98% 80% 5 Pelvis alone 95% — 6 Long bones only 80% — 7 Skull + mandible — 90%

**Accuracy of Sex determination by Stewart [17]**

Sex can be determined by two methods – morphological and metric. The morphological method of assessing sex is by reference to the differences in skeletal remains on the basis of gross examination. It relies on the specific bony traits and muscular markings etc. to differentiate the skeletal remains. The advantage of the morphological method is that sex-specific bony characteristics remain unique in spite of population variations. But gross examination of morphological characteristics of the skeleton has disadvantages such as inter- and intra-observer errors, observer experience, and standardization and statistical analysis problems. This gross morphological method of determining sex is challenged by modern morphological methods such as the geometric morphometric technique [18] and elliptical

Earlier in the gross morphology technique, the skeletal remains are observed in two dimensions and now by reference to the geometric morphometric technique, the shape differences are first observed and then quantified in three dimensions digitally. Thus, this technique reduces the inter- and intra-observer errors. This new

The human pelvis consists of 3 bones namely the hip bone, the sacrum and the coccyx. The hip bone consists of 3 parts i.e. the ilium, the ischium and the pubis. The pelvis is the most sexually dimorphic bone of the human skeleton as it determines the sex very accurately. The pelvis is the most widely studied bone to determine sex from unknown skeletal remains. As Krogman [20] has identified, the pelvis can identify correct sex in 95% (**Table 3**) of cases from unknown skeletal remains. **Table 4** enumerates classical morphological sex differences from pelvis. Phenice [21] studied 275 adult individual already sexed pelvises from the Terry collection with three visual traits named the ventral arc, the subpubic concavity and the medial aspect of ischiopubic ramus and found sex with 95% accuracy. He also

technique works well at a population level but it is very difficult to apply to individuals. Nowadays, a number of sex dimorphic characters are studied morphometrically and then statistically analyzed by discriminant function analysis, logistic

sex and found as shown in **Table 3**.

*Forensic Osteology and Identification*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99358*

*Showing accuracy of sexual identification from bones.*

**Sr. No Bones Available Accuracy of Sex determination**

Fourier analysis [19].

**Table 3.**

**4.1 Pelvis**

**111**

regression and neural networking.

*4.1.1 Morphological assessment*

Recently also the method devised by Acsadi and Nemeskeri [6] has been widely used. They studied sagittal, coronal and lambdoid sutures for the purpose of age estimation. They divided the coronal suture into three parts, the sagittal suture into four parts and the lambdoid suture into three parts – in total 16 sections. Then they studied closure of sutures and gave scores as follows:

Score 0: Open suture. Score 1: Suture line is closed but clearly visible and continuous. Score 2: Suture line is thinner and may be interrupted by complete closure at places. Score 3: At the suture line, only pits are available.

Score 4: Suture is completely obliterated.

Each of 16 sections described above was examined and awarded scores and a mean value was calculated, then that mean closure value was compared by the **Table 2** given below and the mean age was calculated and the age category was noted.

In young adult life, the incisival palatine suture is closed with activity seen at transverse and posterior palatine suture. The anterior palatine remains completely open. In middle-aged adult life, the incisival transverse and posterior palatine suture are closed. The interior palatine remains partially open. In old age, all palatine sutures are fused [15].

There are many more bones from which age can be found. The bones described here are the bones which are frequently examined by forensic anthropologists.

#### **4. Sex**

In humans, it is very difficult to determine sex from skeletal remains. Until adolescence, the human skeleton is immature and starts maturing at puberty or adolescence and thus attains complete maturity in adulthood. Thus, sex determination with accuracy in young to adult life is difficult as many factors overlap.

*Forensic Osteology and Identification DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99358*


#### **Table 3.**

**3.2 Cranial sutures**

**Table 2.**

of cranial sutures.

places.

noted.

**4. Sex**

**110**

Score 0: Open suture.

tine sutures are fused [15].

Cranial sutures are extensively studied by different authors for age estimation. Cranial Sutures usually fuse in adult life except the metopic suture. The metopic suture fuses by the age of 1 to 4 years. The fusion of the cranial suture in adult life is studied both endocranially and ectocranially. Cranial sutures are assessed in three sections or parts: palate is also studied along with endocranial and ectocranial study

**Mean Closure Value Mean Age SD Range Age Category** 0.4–1.5 28.6 13.08 15–40 Juvenile-young adult 1.6–2.5 43.7 14.46 30–60 Young-middle adult 2.6–2.9 49.1 16.40 35–65 Young-middle adult 3.0–3.9 60 13.23 45–75 Middle-old adult 4.0 65.4 14.05 50–80 Middle-old adult

*Forensic Analysis - Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope*

Recently also the method devised by Acsadi and Nemeskeri [6] has been widely used. They studied sagittal, coronal and lambdoid sutures for the purpose of age estimation. They divided the coronal suture into three parts, the sagittal suture into four parts and the lambdoid suture into three parts – in total 16 sections. Then they

Score 2: Suture line is thinner and may be interrupted by complete closure at

Each of 16 sections described above was examined and awarded scores and a mean value was calculated, then that mean closure value was compared by the **Table 2** given below and the mean age was calculated and the age category was

In young adult life, the incisival palatine suture is closed with activity seen at transverse and posterior palatine suture. The anterior palatine remains completely open. In middle-aged adult life, the incisival transverse and posterior palatine suture are closed. The interior palatine remains partially open. In old age, all pala-

There are many more bones from which age can be found. The bones described

here are the bones which are frequently examined by forensic anthropologists.

In humans, it is very difficult to determine sex from skeletal remains. Until adolescence, the human skeleton is immature and starts maturing at puberty or adolescence and thus attains complete maturity in adulthood. Thus, sex determination with accuracy in young to adult life is difficult as many factors overlap.

studied closure of sutures and gave scores as follows:

*Showing estimation of age by cranial suturel closure [6] by mean Acsadi score.*

Score 3: At the suture line, only pits are available.

Score 4: Suture is completely obliterated.

Score 1: Suture line is closed but clearly visible and continuous.

*Showing accuracy of sexual identification from bones.*

Krogman [16] studied a sample of 750 adult skeletons (white and black, male and female) from the Harmann-Todd collection and Stewart [17] also determined sex and found as shown in **Table 3**.

Sex can be determined by two methods – morphological and metric. The morphological method of assessing sex is by reference to the differences in skeletal remains on the basis of gross examination. It relies on the specific bony traits and muscular markings etc. to differentiate the skeletal remains. The advantage of the morphological method is that sex-specific bony characteristics remain unique in spite of population variations. But gross examination of morphological characteristics of the skeleton has disadvantages such as inter- and intra-observer errors, observer experience, and standardization and statistical analysis problems. This gross morphological method of determining sex is challenged by modern morphological methods such as the geometric morphometric technique [18] and elliptical Fourier analysis [19].

Earlier in the gross morphology technique, the skeletal remains are observed in two dimensions and now by reference to the geometric morphometric technique, the shape differences are first observed and then quantified in three dimensions digitally. Thus, this technique reduces the inter- and intra-observer errors. This new technique works well at a population level but it is very difficult to apply to individuals. Nowadays, a number of sex dimorphic characters are studied morphometrically and then statistically analyzed by discriminant function analysis, logistic regression and neural networking.

#### **4.1 Pelvis**

#### *4.1.1 Morphological assessment*

The human pelvis consists of 3 bones namely the hip bone, the sacrum and the coccyx. The hip bone consists of 3 parts i.e. the ilium, the ischium and the pubis. The pelvis is the most sexually dimorphic bone of the human skeleton as it determines the sex very accurately. The pelvis is the most widely studied bone to determine sex from unknown skeletal remains. As Krogman [20] has identified, the pelvis can identify correct sex in 95% (**Table 3**) of cases from unknown skeletal remains. **Table 4** enumerates classical morphological sex differences from pelvis.

Phenice [21] studied 275 adult individual already sexed pelvises from the Terry collection with three visual traits named the ventral arc, the subpubic concavity and the medial aspect of ischiopubic ramus and found sex with 95% accuracy. He also

### *Forensic Analysis - Scientific and Medical Techniques and Evidence under the Microscope*

shows that sexing accuracy for European Americans is 98% for both males and females, 98% for African American females, and 100% for African American males. Iscan and Derrick [25] developed a gross assessment method for sex determina-

tion using the sacroiliac joint with three structures which included the postauricular sulcus, the postauricular space and the iliac tuberosity. They found these

There are multiple studies suggesting various indices to access sexual

Turner [26] described the shape of the pelvic inlet based on the conjugate diameter (anteroposterior diameter) and transverse diameter of pelvic inlet. It is

¼ ðConjugate diameter anteroposterior diameter ð

(3)

∗ 100*=*transverse diameter of pelvic inletÞ

On the basis of the index, Turner divided inlet into three classes as follows

He found that the brim index in males is somewhat lower than in females.

The ishchiopubic index is given by Washburn [27]. It is calculated as follows

Both lengths can be measured with a vernier caliper from the point in the acetabulum where the ilium, ischium and pubis fuse, which may be a notch, raised or irregular area in the acetabulum. The caliper should be held parallel to the long axis of the bone. The author also suggested that the index alone will determine sex from skeletal remains of any one particular population race by up to over 90%. However, overlapping may occur in the skeletal remains of different races as found

**Population Male Female** White 73–94 (83.6 � 4) 91–115 (99.5 � 5.1) Black 71–88 (79.9 � 4) 84–104 (95 � 4.6)

ð Þ Pubic length ∗ 100*=*Ischial Length (4)

to be highly accurate in determining sex.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99358*

*Forensic Osteology and Identification*

*4.1.2 Metric assessment*

*4.1.2.1 Turner pelvic index*

also known as the Brim Index.

Brim Index ¼ Turner Pelvic Index

Platypellic = less than 90 (90 not included) Mesatipellic = 90 to 95 (both 90 and 95 included) Dolichopellic = greater than 95 (95 not included)

*4.1.2.2 Ischiopubic index (Washburn index)*

in white males and black females (**Table 5**).

*Showing ischiopubic index in white and blacks.*

**Table 5.**

**113**

dimorphism.


#### **Table 4.**

*Shows classical morphological sex differences from pelvis.*

found that the ventral arc is the least ambiguous and medial aspect of the ischiopubic ramus as the most ambiguous trait among the three traits studied.

Kelley [22] observed after applying the Phenice technique in 392 mature pelvis of both sexes from collection from University of California, Berkeley and Sacramento State University that the Phenice method of sexing with three virtual traits is very reliable and also found that fewer intermediate features are present with the ventral arc and if intermediate features are present in two or all the three traits, then the pelvis is of the female sex.

Bruzek [23] found 95% accuracy in sex determination by using a new visual method taking into account five traits of the hip bone, namely the preauricular sulcus, the greater sciatic notch, the composite arch, the morphology of the inferior pelvis and ischiopubic proportions.

Bytheway [24] studied thirty-six traits digitally of 200 African and European American male and female adult humans' coxae and showed that sex and size have a significant effect on shape for both European Americans. The discriminant analysis

#### *Forensic Osteology and Identification DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99358*

shows that sexing accuracy for European Americans is 98% for both males and females, 98% for African American females, and 100% for African American males.

Iscan and Derrick [25] developed a gross assessment method for sex determination using the sacroiliac joint with three structures which included the postauricular sulcus, the postauricular space and the iliac tuberosity. They found these to be highly accurate in determining sex.
