**4. Discussions**

*Lifestyle and Epidemiology - The Double Burden of Poverty and Cardiovascular Diseases...*

Tobacco and marijuana product use of relatives/friend living with participated students

Educational level

Smoking hubbly bubbly

Smoke Marijuana

Tobacco smoking

Student residence

I drink alcohol because it will enhance my creative ability

I drink alcohol because I want to be popular

I drink alcohol because it helps me to face difficulties with confidence

I drink alcohol because it would ease me when I get blamed

*\*≥0.05; \*\*≥0.001.*

**Table 3.**

Reasons for drinking alcohol

**Unadjusted Adjusted for age, gender and receiving money into** 

**OR P-value (95%CI) OR P-value 95 %CI**

4.31 0.000\*\* (2.71 (6.87) 4.14 0.000\*\* (2.59 6.62)

4.93 0.000\*\* (3.16 (7.70) 4.50 0.000\*\* (2.87 7.06)

4.54 0.000\*\* (3.04 (6.78) 4.24 0.000\*\*. (2.82 6.35)

4.52 0.000\* (3.73 (8.21) 3.65 0.000\*\* (2.74 6.66)

1.86 0.001\*\* (0.07 (3.71) 2.31 0.005\* (1.87 7.86)

1.10 0.321 (0.31 (4.42) 0.24 0.371 (0.15 3.34)

3.41 0.561 (2.45 (4.73) 2.21 0.461 (1.57 4.63)

Lower level 0.96 0.765 (0.74 1.25) 0.98 0.900 (0.74 1.31) Moderate high 0.84 0.254 (0.62 1.13) 0.84 0.264 (0.62 1.14) High level 1.30 0.113 (0.94 1.80) 1.28 0.161 (0.91 1.82)

On campus 0.86 0.322 (0.64 (1.16) 1.07 0.650 (0.79 1.45) Off Campus 1.16 0.322 (0/86 (1.57) 0.93 0.650 (0.69 1.26)

**own Bank account**

significantly (P < 0.05) associated with the current regular alcohol use among University of Limpopo students for unadjusted (OR ranges 4.31 95%CI 2.71 6.87 to 4.92 95%CI 3.16 7.70) and after adjusted for age, gender, and amount of money deposited into the student account by the bursary scheme (OR ranges from 4.14 95%CI 2.59 6.62 to 4.50 95%CI 2.87 7.06). Place of residence and educational level of students were not significantly associated with current regular alcohol use among students. Current regular alcohol use among students was significantly (P < 0.05) associated with enhancing creativity (OR = 4.52 95%CI 3.73 8.210) and popularity (OR = 1.86 95%CI 0.07 3.71) motive among University of Limpopo students before adjusting the cofounders, even after adjusting cofounders, creativ-

*and the associated risk factors for University of Limpopo students aged 17 to 43 years.*

*Odds ratio and 95% confidence interval and p-value for the association of current regular alcohol drinking use* 

ity (OR = 3.65 95%CI 2.74 6.66) popularity (OR = 2.31 95%CI 1.87 7.86)).

**182**

This study aimed to investigate the prevalence of alcohol use and related risk factors among University of Limpopo students aged 17 to 43 years. The prevalence of current alcohol drinkers was significantly higher for males compared to females in a University of Limpopo. Similar patterns were reported earlier in South African Universities [7, 9, 10]. Among students in South Africa, Lategan *et al*, [12] found significant differences in drinking behaviour between males and females, with male students drinking frequently more alcohol than female students. Kypri, et al., [21] reported similar results among students in a university in New Zealand and further indicated that these students drank over the legal limit.

In the current study, a significant number of males compared to females (P < 0.05) preferred drinking beer and spirits. Weschler et al., [22] reported that several students (both genders) chose spirits (43.8%), beer (19.2%) cider (17.4%) and very few chose wine (3.7%).

Students who preferred spirits and beer showed risky drinking behaviour such as driving while drunk and smoking [12]. Alcohol use at university tends to reach a peak among students aged between 18 and 25 years and are also at the risk of increasing their alcohol consumption later [23]. These university students may develop drinking patterns early in life and it will eventually affect their health and reduce their life expectancy later in their lifestyle.

In the current study alcohol use among students is associated with the use of tobacco and alcohol among friends and family they are staying with. Taremian et al., [24] showed a relatively high incidence of alcohol (17%) abuse among University students in Tehran, however drugs abuse was also high with 34% waterpipe smoking, 24% cigarette, and 2.2% marijuana. Patterns of alcohol consumption and use of drugs vary depending on drinking motives. Cox and Klinger, [25] reported that alcohol drinking and drug use motives could be characterised into two underlying dimensions reflecting the valence (positive or negative) and source (internal or external) of the outcome an individual hopes to achieve. These drinking and drug problems of university students affect their academic achievement badly, emotional adaptableness, and the ability to get jobs after obtaining their career qualification [26].

In our current study alcohol use was not significantly associated with the students residents (off campus/on campus). Dawson et al., [27] found the similar results were there was no differences in amount of alcohol drinking among students living on and off-campus. Similar results were found in the current study. Contrary, Simons-Morton et al., [14] reported that independency and peer pressure increases the risk of alcohol consumptions among students living off-campus.

In the present study, most students drank alcohol to improve interpersonal relationships. The greatest motive for drinking was to be popular followed by difficulties with confidence among males in the current study. Yoo et al., [28], reported a similar response among Korean Medical Students. The high prevalence of drinking among university students not only undermines academic performance, it also places student at risk of injuries, mortality, crime, and sexual assault [29]. It is necessary and essential to identify the significance of alcohol consumption complications in the institutional environment and system that can launch a healthy drinking culture. The problem of university student alcohol consumption can be solved by Policy-based tactics. A healthy drinking culture should be advocated by both the university authority, staff, students and parents such that skilled graduates of the University of Limpopo could pursue his/her career with dignity and vision.

This study has some limitations. We did not randomly select the students to participate in the study but have invited them to take part in the study. There is a possibility that our sample may not be generalizable to the University of Limpopo students. This study forms the base; ever since the higher education sector decided to deposit the bursary money into the student account every month to cover their essentials. Given the cross-sectional nature of the current study, a causal relationship could not be achieved. This was based on interviewing students by welltrained field workers hence recall bias should not be ruled out as an interview was conducted between lecture classes.
