**4. Environmental impact of OPEFB**

Oil palm biomass can generally be classified into oil palm fronds (OPF) and oil palm trunks (OPT), oil palm empty fruit bunches (OPEFB), palm kernel shells (PKS), mesocarp fibre (MF), and palm oil mill effluent (POME). In total, 44.85 MT of oil palm biomass is generated annually during the fresh fruit bunch processing, oil palm tree planting and pruning activities [12]. Enormous waste is often generated in the oil palm processing industry in form of empty fruit bunches after fruits extraction for palm oil and palm kernel production. These biomass residues are usually discarded indiscriminately to the detriment of environmental beauty. Where they are gathered away from the immediate vicinity of processing activities, this massive waste is often dumped around the periphery of factory or mill site to form heaps of unhygienic decaying biomass [25].

Proper management of this waste and its disposal is an ardent task and consequently create environmental hazards. These heaps of discarded empty fruit bunches become attractive sources for insects and pests, and a breeding ground for various infectious diseases [26]. The emission of foul-smelling odour at millsite is a constant reminder of the lurking health hazards with the potential for epidemic explosion within the environs of the oil palm processing factory.

Disposal of this massive solid waste causes pollution to the environment. Hence, success in converting this waste material into benefitting products would reduce cost of waste disposed and contribute towards cleaner environment [27]. As reported by reference [28], the use of biomass from the residues of African oil palm would reduce emissions from CO2 from 17.4 Tg p/year to 12.6 Tg p/year and from 3.0 PJ oil p/year to 23.0 PJ of oil p/year, corresponding to 72% and 67% of reduction respectively [28]. Nonetheless, some productive utilisation of these waste materials is not without its attendant effects on the environment. For instance, utilisation of EFB by fast pyrolysis has the potential environmental impact of SO2 as the causes of acidification and C2H4 as the causes of photochemical oxidation process. Greenhouse emissions of CO2 and CH4 resulting from the burning of EFB, especially at landsite, are the major causes of Ozone layer depletion and the attendant accentuation of global warming [29].

Life cycle assessment (LCA) of the utilisation of EFB through recycling technologies for fuel, fibre and fertiliser products reveals that methane recovery and compositing are more environmentally friendly than other technologies as measured by reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. On the other hand, pulp and paper, and medium density fibreboard (MDF) production are favourable technologies for land use impacts. However, both recycling technologies for EFB utilisation require intense primary energy, high chemical uses and considerable emission from their waste treatment systems [30].

## **5. Conclusion**

Empty fruit bunches of *Elaeis guineensis* are generated in enormous quantity as waste materials globally in oil palm processing industry. Fibres of *Elaeis guineensis* empty fruit bunch (EFB) are lignocellulosic materials, majorly consisting of an estimated cellulosic content of 30–50%, 15–35% of hemicelluloses and about

20–30% of lignin, based on extractive-free fibre. The rich cellulose base of EFB fibre makes *Elaeis guineensis* a good potential resource for papermaking furnish. In addition, the pulp and paper industry is often referred to as the cellulose industry. Notwithstanding these positive attributes, the abundance of empty fruit bunches as oil palm biomass residues poses serious challenges to humans and is of great consequence to the environment. Consequently, productive uses are needed for oil palm EFB, and research has shown that they can be utilised as an alternative, suitable and sustainable source of papermaking fibre.
