**3. Strengthening surveillance systems**

Surveillance systems of the critical environmental reservoirs and pathways will allow for the early detection of outbreaks. It is essential to quickly identify

#### *The One-Health Approach to Infectious Disease Outbreaks Control DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95759*

critical times and critical locations for the onset of outbreaks by monitoring disease indicators such as the pathogen presence or burden in a particular community with associated risk factors. This can be achieved by the environment, livestock, wildlife, and human sampling [56]. Regular monitoring of critical reservoirs will identify peaks in presence or indicators related to early signals of disease outbreaks [57].

Traditional human and livestock disease detection and management systems are based on diagnostic analyses of clinical samples [58–60]. However, these systems fail to detect early warnings of public health threats at a broad population level and fail to predict outbreaks promptly [61]. An alternative to this could be using human-wildlife contaminated ecosystems such as community-based urine, fecal, and other samples to identify public, wildlife, or livestock health [62]. This kind of monitoring, together with unique sampling, allows early detection and prediction of outbreaks by understanding pathogens, including shedding rates, risks, and magnitudes, critical in disease surveillance [63]. Recently, raw sewage has been used to monitor the presence and abundance of COVID-19 in communities. An epidemiological tool developed and refined by environmental scientists over the last 20 years (Wastewater-Based Epidemiology — WBE) holds the potential to contain and mitigate Covid-19 outbreaks while also minimizing domino effects such as unnecessarily long stay-at-home policies that stress humans and economies alike. WBE measures chemical signatures in sewage, such as fragment biomarkers from the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), only by applying the type of clinical diagnostic testing to the collective signature of entire communities [64]. As such, it could rapidly establish Covid-19 infections across an entire community. The One Health surveillance model aims to identify risks before clinical cases are reported [65]. Mapping pandemic potential can facilitate data collection representative of at-risk regions followed by risk mitigations [66]. Microbial source tracking can be more complicated, especially in limited-resource areas, which necessitates determining the environment to sample. Specific population, shedding rate and natural degradation and comparison, and correlation with clinical data are vital tools for getting reliable information for strengthening surveillance systems [66–68].

Intervention approaches in the One Health approach involve utilizing feasible innovation technology for human and animal ecosystems management, medical and veterinary interventions to oversee diseases, and education of local communities and governments to change human behavior, practices, and policy based on relationships between the environments or human and animal health [69].

The first intervention for vaccine-preventable infectious diseases is wildlife animal vaccination and treatment strategies [70]. Disease preventive measures act as a barrier between human-animal disease transmissions. For example, encouraging the disinfection of clean water could remove pathogens from the community. Interventions to prevent pathogens shedding are among the possible management that requires multiple strategies for accomplishment [71, 72]. For instance, rabies prevention by oral vaccination of wildlife with live vaccines has proven a powerful tool to eliminate or control rabies in multiple countries in Europe and North America. In 2012–2013 U.S. Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service through Wildlife Services program, conducted the field trial involving the distribution of new oral rabies live recombinant human adenovirus type 5 vector, expressing rabies virus glycoprotein (AdRG1.3) (Onrab) vaccine bait in five states [73]. Baits laden with oral rabies vaccines are essential for managing wildlife rabies to monitor human contacts and potential vaccine virus exposure. Continued surveillance like these is needed because of the potential for vaccine virus infection [74].

This approach and several others can be considered examples of the complementary policies for the permanent implementation of interventions. There is a need to regulate animal pathogen shedding in waste products, especially in rural areas and forest ecosystems, and other previously reported critical transmission pathways [75–77].

The modification of human behavior is also imperative to minimize the transmittance of infectious diseases and pathways in which interventions cannot be performed for cost, capability, or convenience [78–81]. One primary health behavior-changing method is educating medical, veterinarians, and environmental professionals in the One-Health approach [82]. It is also crucial to educate the public where people are vulnerable to disease transmission [83]. Especially in impoverished, high-risk areas, robust measures should be taken to educate the public on the critical pathways of transmission of viral disease [84–88].
