**2. Electrospinning of ceramic nanofibers**

Electrospinning is the most used nanofiber production technique. It uses electrostatic forces to produce nanofibers. The electrospinning setup consists of a pump, high-voltage power supply, and a collector. The pump feeds the solution to the tip of the needle, the high-voltage power supply charges the solution, and the grounded collector collects the nanofibers. A jet occurs as the electrostatic force overcomes the surface tension of the solution droplet, undergoes bending and whipping instability during its flight in the electrical field between the tip of the needle and the collector. As the solvent evaporates, nanofibers accumulate on the collector in the nanoweb form. Electrospinning is a very simple and relatively inexpensive method used to fabricate ceramic nanofibers and it allows to control the morphology, average diameters, and compositions of the nanofibers (CNFs) [27–30].

Electrospinning enables the production of CNFs with very small diameters, high surface areas, extremely long length, and small pore size. The fabrication of CNFs by electrospinning is usually achieved in three main steps (**Figure 1**): (i) preparation of an electrospinning solution containing a polymer and sol–gel precursor; (ii) electrospinning of the solution to generate precursor NFs; and (iii) conversion of precursor NFs into the final CNFs by calcination, sintering, or chemical processes [31–36]. CNFs requires the presence of a polymer phase in the electrospinning solution as the ceramic phase on its own is not suitable for electrospinning. For successful electrospinning of CNFs, a suitable combination of ceramic precursor, polymer and solvent that can form a viscous homogeneous solution should be selected. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) [37], polyethylene oxide (PEO) [38], and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) [39] are widely used as the polymer phase in the electrospinning of CNFs.

**Figure 1.**

*Schematic showing the preparation of ceramic nanofiber membranes.*

### **3. Applications of ceramic nanofibers**

The unique properties of CNFs such as high surface area, extraordinary length, low density, high porosity, and thermo-mechanical properties [40, 41] qualify them for many different applications. This chapter covers a review of their applications related to tissue engineering [35, 36, 42–47], sensors [32–34, 48, 49], water remediation [50–56], batteries [57–63], catalyst supports/catalysts [64–71], electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding [72–79], and thermal insulation materials [26, 79–82], etc. A list of the recent studies about ceramic nanofibers by electrospinning method is presented in **Table 1**.

**57**

**Ceramic nanofiber composition**

Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2

Ca3(PO4)2 Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2

TiO2 TiO2

electrospinning, calcination

at 600°C electrospinning, calcination

at 600°C electrospinning,

 heat treatment at 350°C

electrospinning, calcination

at 700°C electrospinning, calcination

at 500°C bioceramic preparation using TiO2 nanofibers as reinforcement

BN reinforced gelatin

8CeO2 − 0.5Y

CeO2 Ln FeO3

electrospinning, calcination

acetone sensor

at 700°C

electrospinning, calcination

acetone sensors

at 600°C

electrospinning,

optical gas sensor

drying at 50°C

electrospinning, calcination

ethylene glycol sensor

at 700°C

(Ln = La, Nd, Sm)

PrFeO3 silica, silica/PVP, silica/PMMA

SmFeO3

O2 3 − ZrO2

electrospinning,

bone tissue engineering

nontoxic, biodegradable

bioactive materials with enhanced mechanical properties

Aligned nanofibers with shape-memory strain and repeatable

shape memory actuation behavior

good morphological and structural stability in high temperature

reversible, and reproducible response in real-time O2 and CO

lower optimum operating temperature (140°C) and good

high response value, good selectivity, and good long-time

stability at a low operating temperature of 180°C

flexible and porous nature, reliable and reproducible visual

sensing performance

good response and distinct selectivity to ethylene glycol

[33]

[49]

[34]

[48]

environment, sensitive,

monitoring

response

applications

artificial muscle applications

glutaraldehyde cross-linking

electrospinning, calcination

at 1300°C

electrospinning, calcination

O2 and CO monitoring

at 1000°C

hard tissue engineering applications

tissue engineering

tissue engineering

drug delivery tissue engineering

structural analysis

supported osteoblast viability

bulk density, compressive strength and microhardness increased,

porosity and water adsorption capacity decreased,

bone-like apatite formation in simulated body fluid

[47]

[42]

[32]

tissue engineering

**Processes applied**

**Potential applications**

**Important**

**Ref.**

> **results**

uniform nanofibers with rough surface

solid and micro-porous nanofibers

[36] [35] [43]

*Recent Advances in Applications of Ceramic Nanofibers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97118*

> [45]

[46]

#### *Recent Advances in Applications of Ceramic Nanofibers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97118*

*Nanofibers - Synthesis, Properties and Applications*

(CNFs) [27–30].

of CNFs.

**Figure 1.**

**2. Electrospinning of ceramic nanofibers**

**3. Applications of ceramic nanofibers**

*Schematic showing the preparation of ceramic nanofiber membranes.*

pinning method is presented in **Table 1**.

Electrospinning is the most used nanofiber production technique. It uses electrostatic forces to produce nanofibers. The electrospinning setup consists of a pump, high-voltage power supply, and a collector. The pump feeds the solution to the tip of the needle, the high-voltage power supply charges the solution, and the grounded collector collects the nanofibers. A jet occurs as the electrostatic force overcomes the surface tension of the solution droplet, undergoes bending and whipping instability during its flight in the electrical field between the tip of the needle and the collector. As the solvent evaporates, nanofibers accumulate on the collector in the nanoweb form. Electrospinning is a very simple and relatively inexpensive method used to fabricate ceramic nanofibers and it allows to control the morphology, average diameters, and compositions of the nanofibers

Electrospinning enables the production of CNFs with very small diameters, high surface areas, extremely long length, and small pore size. The fabrication of CNFs by electrospinning is usually achieved in three main steps (**Figure 1**): (i) preparation of an electrospinning solution containing a polymer and sol–gel precursor; (ii) electrospinning of the solution to generate precursor NFs; and (iii) conversion of precursor NFs into the final CNFs by calcination, sintering, or chemical processes [31–36]. CNFs requires the presence of a polymer phase in the electrospinning solution as the ceramic phase on its own is not suitable for electrospinning. For successful electrospinning of CNFs, a suitable combination of ceramic precursor, polymer and solvent that can form a viscous homogeneous solution should be selected. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) [37], polyethylene oxide (PEO) [38], and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) [39] are widely used as the polymer phase in the electrospinning

The unique properties of CNFs such as high surface area, extraordinary length,

low density, high porosity, and thermo-mechanical properties [40, 41] qualify them for many different applications. This chapter covers a review of their applications related to tissue engineering [35, 36, 42–47], sensors [32–34, 48, 49], water remediation [50–56], batteries [57–63], catalyst supports/catalysts [64–71], electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding [72–79], and thermal insulation materials [26, 79–82], etc. A list of the recent studies about ceramic nanofibers by electros-

**56**



**59**

**Ceramic nanofiber composition**

CuO nanofibers

Co

O3

4

@rGO nanofiber

3D SiO2 nanofibers in polyethylene

impregnating nanofiber

solid polymer electrolyte for

batteries

membranes by PLS

oxide–lithium (bis trifluoromethyl)

sulfate–succinonitrile (PLS)

aluminum-doped Li0.33La0.557TiO3

electrospinning, calcination

solid polymer electrolyte for

batteries

at 900°C,

impregnation

electrospinning, calcination

electrospinning, calcination

photocatalyst for H2 generation

enhanced efficiency and

stability in photocatalytic H2 generation under ultraviolet light

Ni content dependent electro-catalytic activity when used for

hydrazine oxidation in alkaline media

homogenous elemental distribution, displayed good

sinter-resistant performance and exhibited 13-times great

catalytic activity than that of Pt@Al

hydrogenation of p-nitrophenol

O2

3 catalyst towards the

at 600°C

electrospinning, calcination

catalyst for hydrazine oxidation

at 600°C

electrospinning, calcination

catalyst supports

at 500°C

catalyst supports

(LLTO) nanofiber network

in a polyvinylidene fluoridehexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP)

γ-Al

O2 3 MgTiO3 CuO-NiO composite

CeO2/Al

O2 3

electrospinning, calcination

anode for LIBs

at 600°C,

rGO coating

electrospinning,

calcination at 600°C

anode for LIBs

**Processes applied**

**Potential applications**

**Important**

**Ref.** [60]

**results** specific capacity of 310 mAh g − 1 at 1C rate for 100 cycles and stabilized capacity of about 120 mAh g − 1 at 5C rate for 1000cycles

efficient stress relaxation and fast Li + ions and electron

[61]

transport during discharge/charge cycling,

in a half cell,

displayed high Coulombic efficiency, enhanced cyclic stability,

and high-rate capability (~900mAh/g at 1A/g, and ~ 600mAh/g

at 5A/g) in half cell

specific capacity of 167.9 mAh g − 1, suffered only 3.28%

[58]

capacity degradation after 100 cycles,

high safety

at elevated temperatures by automatic shut down

improved ionic conductivity and electrochemical cyclic stability,

[62]

a full cell with excellent cycling performance and rate capability

sinter-resistant performance up to 500°C, higher reaction rates

[68]

[71]

[69]

[70]

in the catalytic reduction of p-nitrophenol, compared to free

nanocrystals

*Recent Advances in Applications of Ceramic Nanofibers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97118*


#### *Recent Advances in Applications of Ceramic Nanofibers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97118*

*Nanofibers - Synthesis, Properties and Applications*

[52]

**58**

**Ceramic nanofiber composition**

α-Fe

O2 3 CuO-ZnO composite

TiO2

Au coated TiO2

NiO nanofibers

ZnO

ZnO-SnO2 composite

ZnO/fly ash TiO2-coated

YSZ/silica NF

SiO2 nanofibers/Al

ZrO2

electrospinning, calcination

separator for LIBs and NaIBs

remarkable mechanical flexibility, ample porosity, excellent

[59]

electrolyte wettability and infiltration, outstanding heat

and flame-resistance, and high electrochemical inertness,

in lithium or sodium batteries,

higher current densities, longer cycling lives

at 800°C

O2

3 nanoparticles

electrospinning, calcination

separator for LIBs

at 500, 600, 700, and 800°C

**Processes**

**Potential**

**Important**

**Ref.**

**results**

adsorption capacity increased with decreasing diameter,

outperformed the commercially available Fe

high adsorption capacity,

antibacterial activity

enhanced photoactivity

O2

3 nanoparticles

[50]

[53]

**applications**

chromate removal in water

treatment

water treatment and

purification

water treatment and

purification

**applied**

electrospinning, calcination

at 500°C

electrospinning, calcination

at 500°C

electrospinning, calcination

at 800°C,

Au coating

electrospinning, calcination

photocatalyst in water treatment

highly stable and ultrafine nanofibers with photocatalytic

[83]

[54]

activity against congo red model dye

ZnO–SnO2 nanofibers showed higher photocatalytic activity

than ZnO nanofibers, which was dependent on Sn/Zn molar

enhanced adsorption capacity and photocatalytic efficiency

[55]

at 500°C

electrospinning, calcination

photocatalyst in water treatment

ratio

at 600°C

electrospinning,

photocatalyst and adsorbent in

water treatment

calcination

at 500°C

electrospinning, calcination

photocatalyst in water treatment

stable and reusable membranes with improved photocatalytic

[51]

[57]

degradation efficiency and self-cleaning functionality

Nanofiber membranes with smooth surface, polymer-free

composition, high porosity (79%), high electrolyte uptake

(876%), and excellent thermal stability

Full cell with reversible discharge capacity of 165 mAh g − 1

after 100 cycles at a current density of

50 mA g − 1

at 500°C


**61**

**Ceramic nanofiber composition**

SiO2/SiO2 nanofibrous aerogels

SiZrOC ZrO2-Al

aerogels

yttria-stabilized zirconia mixed silica

electrospinning, calcination

thermal insulation materials

at 800-1300°C

electrospinning, calcination

separation of nuclear waste and

recycling of nuclear fuels

at 500°C,

coating by impregnation

electrospinning, calcination

detoxification of chemical

warfare agents

reinforcement in Mg composite

increased compressive strength

at 300-700°C

electrospinning, calcination

at 800°C

electrospinning, calcination

capacitive pressure sensor

high sensitivity

(≈4.4 k Pa − 1),

fast response speed (<16 ms),

ultralow limit of detection (<0.8 Pa), low fatigue over 50000

loading/unloading cycles,

high temperature stability

at 450°C

(YSZ/SiO2)

TiO2 nanofibers

AgNP coating

ZnTiO3

TiO2 TiO2 **Table 1.** *Ceramic nanofibers by electrospinning method and their applications.*

O2

3/Al(H2PO4)3 nanofibrous

electrospinning, calcination

at 800°C electrospinning, calcination

thermal insulation materials

at 800°C

thermal insulation materials

electrospinning, calcination

at 900°C

thermal insulation materials

ultralow density of ~0.2 mg cm-3, ultralow thermal conductivity (23.27 mW m-1 K-1), negative Poisson's ratio, temperature-invariant superelasticity from −196 to 1100°C, and editable shapes on a large scale

high-temperature stability (~1200°C in Ar) and low thermal conductivity (~0.1392 W m − 1 K − 1 at 1000°C in N2)

ultra-strong, superelastic, and high temperature resistant, high

fatigue resistance, thermal insulation performance with low

thermal conductivity (0.0322 W m − 1 K − 1)

enhanced use temperature and mechanical properties by

[80]

stabilization, good thermal insulation performance and

high porosity, permeability, loading capacity, stability in

satisfactory reactivity against chemical warfare simulants

[85]

[86]

[87]

[84]

extreme conditions

hydrophobic property

[26]

**Processes applied**

**Potential applications**

**Important**

**Ref.** [81]

**results**

*Recent Advances in Applications of Ceramic Nanofibers DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97118*

[82]

