**5.2 Reproductive hormones and molecular biomarkers**

HAS3, HAS2 and HAS1 showed a dose-dependently decrease (p < 0.05) testosterone levels by 82.02%, 36.01% and 27.25% respectively (**Table 2**). Additionally, the PSA level was lowered in rats that received HAS3 by 62.44%. On the other hand, in female rats, HAS1 and HAS2 administration elevated serum oestrogen levels by 23.38%, whereas HAS2 and HAS3 lowered oestrogen levels by 0.54% and 21.60% when compared with control. Further, progesterone was increased in all the treated female rats by 283.97% (HAS3), 227.74% (HAS2), and 184.74% (HAS1) respectively. In male rats, serum NO levels were elevated (p < 0.05) following HAS2 and HAS3 administrations. Also, HAS3 increased (p < 0.05) TNF-α level by 39.99% in rats. In the female rats, however, both HAS2 and HAS3 elevated (p < 0.05) serum NO levels by 78.57% and 71.43% respectively. Further, TNF-α and NF-kB were increased in rats serum of HAS3 by 64.84% and 228.8% when compared with control.
