Section 3 Control of Mosquitos

**137**

**Chapter 9**

**Abstract**

Control Strategy for *Aedes aegypti*

*Taiana Gabriela Barbosa de Souza, Eduardo José de Arruda,* 

*Raphael Antônio Borges Gomes, Alex Martins Machado* 

The mosquito *Aedes aegypti* (Diptera: Culicidae), is adapted to different environments, mainly urban ones. They have a high degree of vectorial competence for viral diseases, especially Dengue, the arbovirus with the highest number of cases in the world. The adaptive ability of this insect and the abundance of breeding sites have undermined attempts at population's control, resulting in a high degree of infestation in many regions of the world, resulting in a Dengue endemic. It is important to understand the different nuances of the insect in order to understand the adaptive capacity of this vector, through the knowledge of his behavior, to propose new strategies and engagement of population in proactive actions that allow the population control of this vector, especially in periods of greater proliferation. This chapter discusses population control strategies, in different scenarios and

**Keywords:** *Aedes* population control, Arbovirus, epidemiological surveillance,

The *Aedes aegypti* mosquito (Linnaeus, 1762) has always accompanied human migration from his original habitat in northwest Africa, from where the Spanish and Portuguese maritime trade, through the slave trade and the transport of goods from Africa to the new world, allowed the conquest of new areas by him*.* The phylogenetic analyzes showed that this mosquito has a monophyletic origin from a single strain, domesticated from Africa [1, 2]. This monophyletic group presents some bioecological variations, such as size, color, host preference for blood-feeding, choice of oviposition, larval development, egg dormancy, development time and

The dissemination of this vector throughout the Brazilian territory was facilitated by the rapid displacement of the rural population to the urban environment without compatible sanitary conditions for the provision of essential services such as sewage and treated water, which contributes to the transmission of diseases, especially those of vector transmission [3–5]. In this context, *A. aegypti* is a vector of several important viral diseases, being able to transmit the Yellow Fever, Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya and Mayaro viruses. Among these arboviruses, dengue stands

(Linnaeus, 1762) Population

*and Antônio Pancrácio de Souza*

carried out by different researchers, mainly in Brazil.

mosquitoes control, public health policies

vector competence (**Figure 1**) [2].

**1. Introduction**

#### **Chapter 9**

## Control Strategy for *Aedes aegypti* (Linnaeus, 1762) Population

*Taiana Gabriela Barbosa de Souza, Eduardo José de Arruda, Raphael Antônio Borges Gomes, Alex Martins Machado and Antônio Pancrácio de Souza*

#### **Abstract**

The mosquito *Aedes aegypti* (Diptera: Culicidae), is adapted to different environments, mainly urban ones. They have a high degree of vectorial competence for viral diseases, especially Dengue, the arbovirus with the highest number of cases in the world. The adaptive ability of this insect and the abundance of breeding sites have undermined attempts at population's control, resulting in a high degree of infestation in many regions of the world, resulting in a Dengue endemic. It is important to understand the different nuances of the insect in order to understand the adaptive capacity of this vector, through the knowledge of his behavior, to propose new strategies and engagement of population in proactive actions that allow the population control of this vector, especially in periods of greater proliferation. This chapter discusses population control strategies, in different scenarios and carried out by different researchers, mainly in Brazil.

**Keywords:** *Aedes* population control, Arbovirus, epidemiological surveillance, mosquitoes control, public health policies

#### **1. Introduction**

The *Aedes aegypti* mosquito (Linnaeus, 1762) has always accompanied human migration from his original habitat in northwest Africa, from where the Spanish and Portuguese maritime trade, through the slave trade and the transport of goods from Africa to the new world, allowed the conquest of new areas by him*.* The phylogenetic analyzes showed that this mosquito has a monophyletic origin from a single strain, domesticated from Africa [1, 2]. This monophyletic group presents some bioecological variations, such as size, color, host preference for blood-feeding, choice of oviposition, larval development, egg dormancy, development time and vector competence (**Figure 1**) [2].

The dissemination of this vector throughout the Brazilian territory was facilitated by the rapid displacement of the rural population to the urban environment without compatible sanitary conditions for the provision of essential services such as sewage and treated water, which contributes to the transmission of diseases, especially those of vector transmission [3–5]. In this context, *A. aegypti* is a vector of several important viral diseases, being able to transmit the Yellow Fever, Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya and Mayaro viruses. Among these arboviruses, dengue stands

**Figure 1.** Aedes aegypti: *Life cycle and control strategies.*

out for the large number of cases, which about 40% of the world population is susceptible to contracting dengue, generating about 500 million cases and 20,000 deaths per year [6].

In Brazil, the first reports of dengue occurred in the late 19th century, in São Paulo (SP), and in the early 20th century, in Niterói (RJ), without laboratory diagnosis. However, in this period, the mosquito was already a problem, but not because of dengue, due to the transmission of yellow fever - which caused numerous outbreaks with a high mortality rate. In 1955, Brazil eradicated *Aedes aegypti* as a result of measures to control yellow fever. The success in eradicating this mosquito in Brazilian territory was achieved with great effort, through awareness campaigns and control of mosquito breeding sites. In addition, the eradication of the *A. aegypti* mosquito was possible at the time because only 20% of the population lived in cities, and the products discarded by them were predominantly organic, not serving as a reservoir for the multiplication of mosquitoes [7].

At the end of the 1960s, the relaxation of the measures adopted led to the reintroduction of the vector into national territory. This period coincided with a period of intense and disorganized urbanization in several Brazilian cities. The industrialization has attracted the rural population to urban areas, leading to an exaggerated urban vegetative growth in a disorganized way and without adequate infrastructure, and many people living in conditions of poverty. The result was the resurgence of the mosquito and the occurrence of epidemic outbreaks of dengue, with the four serotypes, in addition to the proliferation of hemorrhagic dengue (the most serious manifestation of the disease) in all Brazilian states [3, 4, 7, 8].

In 1982 there was a new outbreak of Dengue in Roraima/RR, it was quickly controlled, and considered an epidemic. However, the first time that an epidemic was characterized in Brazil was in 1986–1987 from Nova Iguaçu/RJ, affecting several municipalities and with the largest number of cases in the northeast region. In 1990–1991 a second epidemic occurred, now with more than double the number of cases per 100,000 inhabitants [3, 4, 9, 10]. The Dengue virus was detected with a small outbreak of the disease in Mato Grosso do Sul during the year of 1987. Since

**139**

*Control Strategy for* Aedes aegypti *(Linnaeus, 1762) Population*

then, the epidemics that occur in Brazil are also observed in our state, but especially in the most populous cities, where a moderate increase of cases is visible annually in the months of November and December, the first with the higher number of cases. January to July, coinciding with the increase in temperature, relative humidity and

Due to the growing number of cases, in different cities and regions of the country, the Ministry of Health started to organize itself in national actions and in 1996 launched the *Aedes aegypti* Eradication Program (AaPE). However, the results were not achieved due to the huge socio-environmental changes that Brazil experienced. It must be admitted that the AaPE was important for strengthening national actions to combat the mosquito by increasing the financial resources destined for this purpose, but without achieving a new eradication of the vector [3, 9]. It was evident due to the new outbreak that occurred in 1997–1998, when Brazil faced a new epidemic with more than 500,000 cases occurring mainly in the northeast and southeast regions, with the circulation of serotypes DEN-1 and DEN-2 [3, 4].

In 2001, it was recognized that the mosquito eradication plan was not viable and a new activity plan was launched (called the Dengue Control Action Intensification Plan - DCAIP), with priority for the municipalities that transmit Dengue the most. In order to improve the DCAIP, in 2002, the National Dengue Control Program (NDCP) was launched, with an important change focusing on community mobili-

The implementation of the NDCP has an additional challenge in municipalities on the international frontier due to the movement of people between countries, making it a potential for the occurrence of epidemics; in this sense, dengue is the second most expressive disease in border municipalities. For example, in the municipalities of Corumbá and Ponta Porã (border with Bolivia and Paraguay respectively), the implementation of the NDCP was evaluated and considered partial. There was a demand for improvement, with regard to the training of human resources. It was made like an answer to the inexistence or malfunction of the Municipal Committee for Mobilization, Monitoring and Evaluation of dengue

After a new Dengue epidemic in 2001–2002, the fight against the vector gained the participation of community health agents, who started to carry out preventive and control actions against dengue, according to the Ministry of Health Ordinance No. 44/GM. This initiative was important both for the optimization of resources and the greater involvement of the community in the fight against the

Today, the four Dengue serotypes circulate throughout the country and it is not necessary to introduce a new serotype for new epidemics to occur, since we will always have susceptible people due to births, migration, and time interval between the occurrence of an epidemic with the same serotype [19, 20]. In addition to the number of cases that scare, the economic impact is also impressive and

Besides that, the Dengue epidemic with thousands of cases annually across the country, in 2014 the first cases of Chikungunya in Brazil were reported and 8 months later in 2015 the first indigenous cases of Zika virus were also reported, both associated and transmitted by the vector *A. aegypti* [22]. Thus, today, we live in a scenario where there is a triple epidemic associated with this mosquito, where climatic, demographic and social changes were relevant to the current situation, in

Some characteristics of epidemics in Brazil are important to highlight, among them the greatest number of cases occur in the first semester and it is important that measures to combat breeding sites and the application of adulticides are carried

addition to the intrinsic factors of the pathogens [23].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96088*

monthly precipitation [11–13].

zation [3, 14].

control measures [15].

mosquito [16–18].

growing [21].

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

out for the large number of cases, which about 40% of the world population is susceptible to contracting dengue, generating about 500 million cases and 20,000

a reservoir for the multiplication of mosquitoes [7].

In Brazil, the first reports of dengue occurred in the late 19th century, in São Paulo (SP), and in the early 20th century, in Niterói (RJ), without laboratory diagnosis. However, in this period, the mosquito was already a problem, but not because of dengue, due to the transmission of yellow fever - which caused numerous outbreaks with a high mortality rate. In 1955, Brazil eradicated *Aedes aegypti* as a result of measures to control yellow fever. The success in eradicating this mosquito in Brazilian territory was achieved with great effort, through awareness campaigns and control of mosquito breeding sites. In addition, the eradication of the *A. aegypti* mosquito was possible at the time because only 20% of the population lived in cities, and the products discarded by them were predominantly organic, not serving as

At the end of the 1960s, the relaxation of the measures adopted led to the reintroduction of the vector into national territory. This period coincided with a period of intense and disorganized urbanization in several Brazilian cities. The industrialization has attracted the rural population to urban areas, leading to an exaggerated urban vegetative growth in a disorganized way and without adequate infrastructure, and many people living in conditions of poverty. The result was the resurgence of the mosquito and the occurrence of epidemic outbreaks of dengue, with the four serotypes, in addition to the proliferation of hemorrhagic dengue (the

most serious manifestation of the disease) in all Brazilian states [3, 4, 7, 8].

In 1982 there was a new outbreak of Dengue in Roraima/RR, it was quickly controlled, and considered an epidemic. However, the first time that an epidemic was characterized in Brazil was in 1986–1987 from Nova Iguaçu/RJ, affecting several municipalities and with the largest number of cases in the northeast region. In 1990–1991 a second epidemic occurred, now with more than double the number of cases per 100,000 inhabitants [3, 4, 9, 10]. The Dengue virus was detected with a small outbreak of the disease in Mato Grosso do Sul during the year of 1987. Since

**138**

deaths per year [6].

Aedes aegypti: *Life cycle and control strategies.*

**Figure 1.**

then, the epidemics that occur in Brazil are also observed in our state, but especially in the most populous cities, where a moderate increase of cases is visible annually in the months of November and December, the first with the higher number of cases. January to July, coinciding with the increase in temperature, relative humidity and monthly precipitation [11–13].

Due to the growing number of cases, in different cities and regions of the country, the Ministry of Health started to organize itself in national actions and in 1996 launched the *Aedes aegypti* Eradication Program (AaPE). However, the results were not achieved due to the huge socio-environmental changes that Brazil experienced. It must be admitted that the AaPE was important for strengthening national actions to combat the mosquito by increasing the financial resources destined for this purpose, but without achieving a new eradication of the vector [3, 9]. It was evident due to the new outbreak that occurred in 1997–1998, when Brazil faced a new epidemic with more than 500,000 cases occurring mainly in the northeast and southeast regions, with the circulation of serotypes DEN-1 and DEN-2 [3, 4].

In 2001, it was recognized that the mosquito eradication plan was not viable and a new activity plan was launched (called the Dengue Control Action Intensification Plan - DCAIP), with priority for the municipalities that transmit Dengue the most. In order to improve the DCAIP, in 2002, the National Dengue Control Program (NDCP) was launched, with an important change focusing on community mobilization [3, 14].

The implementation of the NDCP has an additional challenge in municipalities on the international frontier due to the movement of people between countries, making it a potential for the occurrence of epidemics; in this sense, dengue is the second most expressive disease in border municipalities. For example, in the municipalities of Corumbá and Ponta Porã (border with Bolivia and Paraguay respectively), the implementation of the NDCP was evaluated and considered partial. There was a demand for improvement, with regard to the training of human resources. It was made like an answer to the inexistence or malfunction of the Municipal Committee for Mobilization, Monitoring and Evaluation of dengue control measures [15].

After a new Dengue epidemic in 2001–2002, the fight against the vector gained the participation of community health agents, who started to carry out preventive and control actions against dengue, according to the Ministry of Health Ordinance No. 44/GM. This initiative was important both for the optimization of resources and the greater involvement of the community in the fight against the mosquito [16–18].

Today, the four Dengue serotypes circulate throughout the country and it is not necessary to introduce a new serotype for new epidemics to occur, since we will always have susceptible people due to births, migration, and time interval between the occurrence of an epidemic with the same serotype [19, 20]. In addition to the number of cases that scare, the economic impact is also impressive and growing [21].

Besides that, the Dengue epidemic with thousands of cases annually across the country, in 2014 the first cases of Chikungunya in Brazil were reported and 8 months later in 2015 the first indigenous cases of Zika virus were also reported, both associated and transmitted by the vector *A. aegypti* [22]. Thus, today, we live in a scenario where there is a triple epidemic associated with this mosquito, where climatic, demographic and social changes were relevant to the current situation, in addition to the intrinsic factors of the pathogens [23].

Some characteristics of epidemics in Brazil are important to highlight, among them the greatest number of cases occur in the first semester and it is important that measures to combat breeding sites and the application of adulticides are carried out as soon as the first cases are detected and not during the period. The epidemic, as transmission between people, occurs quickly and from cases concentrated in a city the number of cases increases rapidly and spreads throughout the city and what is interesting, despite the risk of dengue infection increases with the increase in the population of the mosquito; because infected mosquitoes live less and need to live at least ten more days infected before they are able to transmit the virus [24–26], epidemics are not always related to the size of the mosquito population, but with the susceptibility of the population to the serotypes prevalent in the period [18].

In an attempt to control these important diseases, not only in Brazil but in the world, global strategies have been proposed by WHO. WHO efforts were directed at obtaining reactive responses and intense proactivity for early disease warning systems, use of preventive measures, intense entomological and epidemiological surveillance, search for vaccines and strategies/products for vector control, and reduction of morbidity and mortality. In this context, measures for the population control of the vector through the evaluation of new control agents, mapping of risk zones, storage and logistics, surveillance and early diagnosis capacity, social, educational, and environmental interventions and effective communication between the responsible sectors, can provide efficient ways to control these arboviruses [27–30]. However, despite all efforts made in the last decades, the results were not satisfactory, without being able to effectively control the mosquito population or reduce the incidence of these arboviruses.

We know that viral diseases are complex and require multifaceted responses that involve governments' integrated and global strategy to promote coordinated action between different multisectoral partners with an integrated approach to vector management, sustained control, and measures at all hierarchical levels. The guiding principle should harmonize prevention, entomological and epidemiological surveillance, and efficient case management with existing health systems. The effort must ensure that all strategies be coherent, economically sustainable, and that provide for a reduction in environmental impacts [27–30].

In Brazil, the efforts of the public authorities, especially in relation to the joint action of the federal, state and municipal powers, have been improved, in an attempt to cover all this thinking and strategy guided by WHO, as well as the training of trained human resources different areas, from the rapid diagnosis of the disease, vector control, and determination of risk areas [31]. However, it is still essential to evaluate and create more control measures applied with a robust methodology in order to point out the most efficient practices, worthy of replication and allocation of more resources, within these alternatives.

In this context, our main objective will be to present some alternatives and strategies proposed by researchers, in Brazil and worldwide, to control the vector *Aedes aegypti* and the arboviruses transmitted by it. Still, we have as specific objectives the discussion about the viability of these strategies, as well as a comparison between them, in order to understand and analyze the best methods of population control of the vector.

#### **2. Strategies of** *Aedes aegypti* **control**

Despite efforts to control the population of the mosquito *A. aegypti*, Brazil and other countries suffer annually with epidemics mainly of dengue, with occasional outbreaks of other arboviruses caused by the zika and chikungunya viruses. Uncontrolled urbanization, geographic expansion, vector control programs often lacking adequate resources, and use of inefficient vector control methods, combined with the insect's ability to place its eggs in containers in and around the home

**141**

*Control Strategy for* Aedes aegypti *(Linnaeus, 1762) Population*

the available resources, privileging the most effective actions [32].

has made population control of the vector very difficult. In this scenario, it is necessary to evaluate the strategies adopted so far, and the insertion and evaluation of new techniques in order to identify the most efficient methods in order to allocate

It was proposed [32] like a cyclical model of continuous improvement for vector control and, consequently, related viral diseases, with the proposal of an interactive process aiming to improve control programs through the regular and continuous evaluation of methods and techniques used and replacement by better and operationally valid alternatives. The authors propose that proactive control measures should be guided in time and space by epidemiological and entomological data. It is like if the proposed model serves as a catalyst for integrating data on mosquitoes and related arboviruses, filling a gap between control programs, the medical community, and the local government by developing a database that can also supply

Proactive or prophylactic population control measures for the vector *Aedes aegypti*, such as campaigns to reduce outbreaks, use of insecticide-treated material to protect homes from mosquitoes should have the following characteristics: a) potential for an application not only by control program managers but also by the population in general, b) low cost of execution, c) minimum effort for long-term maintenance. These measures have the advantage of being able to reduce the occur-

Within that mode, it is very important to encourage community participation, which tends to decrease their concern with these diseases in periods of lower incidence, requiring constant campaigns since the culture and the habit of the population to discard packaging in inappropriate places, in other words, involving the society in campaigns to fight mosquitoes. Thus, the population needs to be informed about the reproductive characteristics of the vector and its biological behavior, in order for the community to be proactively involved, which is an essen-

Countless campaigns have been carried out, in the most different media to achieve the proactive participation of the population and always targeting the adult population. However, as seen in other awareness campaigns, teaching and understanding the duties of the population, when inculcated in children, has a better effect, by charging children to their parents as well as creating a population more aware of their long-term duties. In this context, it was suggested [34], through the production of informative and interactive booklets, because the education of

On the other hand, there was an interesting study [35] to understand the participation of users in the coproduction of vector control of dengue in Campo Grande - MS, Brazil. It was found that users when included in the relationship with professionals, are able to produce public policy results and benefit from these results. However, the authors still consider that the actions still follow a top-down direction, in the sense that the plan arrives "ready" from the municipality's Health Secretariat, already indicating the actions to be carried out by each member (competencies of agents and actions expected by residents). The autonomy, emancipation, and involvement of managers and authors in the direction of public policy actions have not yet been sufficiently characterized, mainly due to the more effective participation of health agents and users (residents) regarding their responsibility in population control of the vector and reducing the incidence of viral diseases. In this epidemiological scenario, the importance of communication and their effective participation or role can be highlighted, in joint participation in the elaboration of the control plan and its effective application in a continuous and intensive way. In general, experiences show that *A. aegypti* control plans depend on a series of technical

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96088*

other activities public health and city planning.

rences of arboviruses related to the controlled vectors [32].

tial condition for success in controlling the vector [32, 33].

children generates greater collective awareness in the long run.

#### *Control Strategy for* Aedes aegypti *(Linnaeus, 1762) Population DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96088*

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

out as soon as the first cases are detected and not during the period. The epidemic, as transmission between people, occurs quickly and from cases concentrated in a city the number of cases increases rapidly and spreads throughout the city and what is interesting, despite the risk of dengue infection increases with the increase in the population of the mosquito; because infected mosquitoes live less and need to live at least ten more days infected before they are able to transmit the virus [24–26], epidemics are not always related to the size of the mosquito population, but with the susceptibility of the population to the serotypes prevalent in the period [18]. In an attempt to control these important diseases, not only in Brazil but in the world, global strategies have been proposed by WHO. WHO efforts were directed at obtaining reactive responses and intense proactivity for early disease warning systems, use of preventive measures, intense entomological and epidemiological surveillance, search for vaccines and strategies/products for vector control, and reduction of morbidity and mortality. In this context, measures for the population control of the vector through the evaluation of new control agents, mapping of risk zones, storage and logistics, surveillance and early diagnosis capacity, social, educational, and environmental interventions and effective communication between the responsible sectors, can provide efficient ways to control these arboviruses [27–30]. However, despite all efforts made in the last decades, the results were not satisfactory, without being able to effectively control the mosquito population or reduce the

We know that viral diseases are complex and require multifaceted responses that involve governments' integrated and global strategy to promote coordinated action between different multisectoral partners with an integrated approach to vector management, sustained control, and measures at all hierarchical levels. The guiding principle should harmonize prevention, entomological and epidemiological surveillance, and efficient case management with existing health systems. The effort must ensure that all strategies be coherent, economically sustainable, and that provide

In Brazil, the efforts of the public authorities, especially in relation to the joint action of the federal, state and municipal powers, have been improved, in an attempt to cover all this thinking and strategy guided by WHO, as well as the training of trained human resources different areas, from the rapid diagnosis of the disease, vector control, and determination of risk areas [31]. However, it is still essential to evaluate and create more control measures applied with a robust methodology in order to point out the most efficient practices, worthy of replication and

In this context, our main objective will be to present some alternatives and strategies proposed by researchers, in Brazil and worldwide, to control the vector *Aedes aegypti* and the arboviruses transmitted by it. Still, we have as specific objectives the discussion about the viability of these strategies, as well as a comparison between them, in order to understand and analyze the best methods of population

Despite efforts to control the population of the mosquito *A. aegypti*, Brazil and other countries suffer annually with epidemics mainly of dengue, with occasional outbreaks of other arboviruses caused by the zika and chikungunya viruses. Uncontrolled urbanization, geographic expansion, vector control programs often lacking adequate resources, and use of inefficient vector control methods, combined with the insect's ability to place its eggs in containers in and around the home

**140**

control of the vector.

incidence of these arboviruses.

for a reduction in environmental impacts [27–30].

allocation of more resources, within these alternatives.

**2. Strategies of** *Aedes aegypti* **control**

has made population control of the vector very difficult. In this scenario, it is necessary to evaluate the strategies adopted so far, and the insertion and evaluation of new techniques in order to identify the most efficient methods in order to allocate the available resources, privileging the most effective actions [32].

It was proposed [32] like a cyclical model of continuous improvement for vector control and, consequently, related viral diseases, with the proposal of an interactive process aiming to improve control programs through the regular and continuous evaluation of methods and techniques used and replacement by better and operationally valid alternatives. The authors propose that proactive control measures should be guided in time and space by epidemiological and entomological data. It is like if the proposed model serves as a catalyst for integrating data on mosquitoes and related arboviruses, filling a gap between control programs, the medical community, and the local government by developing a database that can also supply other activities public health and city planning.

Proactive or prophylactic population control measures for the vector *Aedes aegypti*, such as campaigns to reduce outbreaks, use of insecticide-treated material to protect homes from mosquitoes should have the following characteristics: a) potential for an application not only by control program managers but also by the population in general, b) low cost of execution, c) minimum effort for long-term maintenance. These measures have the advantage of being able to reduce the occurrences of arboviruses related to the controlled vectors [32].

Within that mode, it is very important to encourage community participation, which tends to decrease their concern with these diseases in periods of lower incidence, requiring constant campaigns since the culture and the habit of the population to discard packaging in inappropriate places, in other words, involving the society in campaigns to fight mosquitoes. Thus, the population needs to be informed about the reproductive characteristics of the vector and its biological behavior, in order for the community to be proactively involved, which is an essential condition for success in controlling the vector [32, 33].

Countless campaigns have been carried out, in the most different media to achieve the proactive participation of the population and always targeting the adult population. However, as seen in other awareness campaigns, teaching and understanding the duties of the population, when inculcated in children, has a better effect, by charging children to their parents as well as creating a population more aware of their long-term duties. In this context, it was suggested [34], through the production of informative and interactive booklets, because the education of children generates greater collective awareness in the long run.

On the other hand, there was an interesting study [35] to understand the participation of users in the coproduction of vector control of dengue in Campo Grande - MS, Brazil. It was found that users when included in the relationship with professionals, are able to produce public policy results and benefit from these results. However, the authors still consider that the actions still follow a top-down direction, in the sense that the plan arrives "ready" from the municipality's Health Secretariat, already indicating the actions to be carried out by each member (competencies of agents and actions expected by residents). The autonomy, emancipation, and involvement of managers and authors in the direction of public policy actions have not yet been sufficiently characterized, mainly due to the more effective participation of health agents and users (residents) regarding their responsibility in population control of the vector and reducing the incidence of viral diseases. In this epidemiological scenario, the importance of communication and their effective participation or role can be highlighted, in joint participation in the elaboration of the control plan and its effective application in a continuous and intensive way. In general, experiences show that *A. aegypti* control plans depend on a series of technical

data and studies incorporated for decision making and discussion at all levels with ordinary citizens. It is not feasible in order to make vector control decisions.

The epidemiological surveillance system is another sector of strategic importance in the control of vectors, which houses the surveillance of cases of arboviruses (mainly Dengue) and entomological, among others. It is the responsibility of the federal, state, and municipal public authorities that should act in collaborative and synchronous ways. The focus should be on data collection, processing and analysis actions, recommendations for prevention and control measures, as well as the promotion of data collection actions; the processing of collected data; analysis and interpretation of processed data; recommendation of appropriate prevention and control measures. It can promote of the indicated prevention and control actions; evaluation of the effectiveness of the measures adopted and dissemination of relevant information [36, 37].

Incomplete data collection makes it impossible to estimate population risks and allows new epidemics to occur, in addition to reducing the effect of contingency plans and the response capacity of the government to respond satisfactorily in epidemic periods. It is important to carry out periodic assessments of the health surveillance system in general, in order to monitor it efficiently and effectively [38].

It is worth mentioning that the surveillance of cases of dengue and other arboviruses are important to monitor the number of suspected cases to know the time, magnitude and locations of the transmission cases. However, many asymptomatic cases result in silent transmission, so the extent of cases is underestimated. In addition, clinical detection is imprecise and laboratory diagnosis can be time-consuming, which compromises the effectiveness of vector control actions, therefore, interventions to interrupt transmission are impaired [39]. Although, it should be noted that investments in monitoring and case monitoring techniques, as well as the availability of rapid diagnostic tests in health centers, combined with an accurate reporting of each patient's data, can greatly assist in understanding the dynamics of the disease in a municipality, allowing decision-making and effective control methodologies aimed at that specific population.

There is a need for the continuous training of health surveillance professionals, in addition to the constant evaluation of the surveillance system, as well as the carrying out of epidemiological studies that can contribute to interventions in dengue control not only in the state of the study, but across the country [40]. One hundred and thirty-four professionals were interviewed, 70% of whom said they were unaware of the existence of a contingency plan for coping with the dengue epidemic, 59% argued that all suspected dengue cases should be confirmed in the laboratory. Still, one-third of the participants reported difficulty in closing serious cases of dengue [40]. In this context, there is a need for the continuous training of health surveillance professionals, in addition to the constant evaluation of the surveillance system, as well as the carrying out of epidemiological studies that can contribute to interventions in dengue control not only in the state of the study, but across the country.

O vector control must be carried out in response to information from epidemiological surveillance allowing to reduce the transmission force of these viruses, which contributes to better care for people who need treatment. For this, interventions need to be carried out at the beginning of the epidemic peak, at the risk of it being impossible to contain the increase in cases. These interventions require a large amount of human and material resources, intense work, and even the application of insecticides from house to house [39].

Entomological surveillance for the purpose of monitoring to detect the presence and abundance of *A. aegypti*, as well as monitoring resistance to the insecticides used has the advantages of being useful in making decisions about mosquito control interventions, are indicative of the risk of epidemics, and allow the selection of

**143**

*Control Strategy for* Aedes aegypti *(Linnaeus, 1762) Population*

areas and/or periods most critical to the risk of epidemics, in addition to subsidizing the use of more effective insecticides. On the other hand, the disadvantages, in addition to the high cost and low prevalence in mosquitoes. The epidemiological surveillance data are poor indicators for risk of epidemics, because, in addition to the mosquito, the presence of the virus and the population vulnerable or not to the serotype are necessarily circulating, and the vector population may even be under control and still have an epidemic due to the variables related to the virus and the

Still, vector control in response to epidemiological data has some important problems, among which we highlight 1) the silent cases that make it difficult to monitor viruses at their onset, especially with new serotypes. 2) interventions often begin with confirmation of laboratory cases, and if this confirmation takes longer, control actions are delayed to prevent an epidemic. 3) the expansion of dengue cases occurs quickly, which makes it difficult to prevent epidemics 4) people move intensely within cities, transporting viruses throughout the city in a short time,

About the population control of vectors, the most effective methods for the control of mosquitoes that was included a variety of insecticides aimed at controlling adult or immature insects. The implementation of effective control consists of impacting the largest proportion of the vector population. It can be demonstrated that the control strategy must be effective for the high coverage of aquatic mosquito habitats and the reach of winged forms. Among these, it is possible to use methods that use adult mosquitoes to transmit insecticides and other biological products using the behavior for the transfer and dissemination of products between resting and oviposition places in a controlled way to leave residual quantities for extension

In this regard, it is important that *A. aegypti* control activities are adapted to local conditions and their availability of resources to face and control the population. Community engagement is essential, but there are areas where a social organization or local legislation makes such engagement difficult. The application of adulticides by means of adapted vehicles is considered inefficient, often used when

An important indicator of the mosquito infestation index in a given area or region is RISAa (Rapid Index Survey of *Aedes aegypti*), which is a control method that aggregates the building, *Breteau*, and container indices used to calculate larval density, being important for making decisions about adult mosquito control. The building and *Breteau* indices are more robust than the container index and less sensitive to show sample variations for pupae and adults indices. Pupa rates per person and per household are less robust than pupae per hectare; Similar results were found with the adult mosquito indices. By this method, each city is divided into blocks and a number calculated according to the degree of the infestation, with a satisfactory one, from 1 to 3.9 alertness and above 3.9 with the risk of the epidemic [42]. The RISAa method is unreliable for some authors because even with low rates,

The traditional method of dividing the city into blocks does not allow the visualization of the city in continuity precisely by dividing the method, which obviously the mosquito is not limited to these blocks in its locomotion in the environment. Thus, methods that can evaluate the blocks in greater detail, detecting points of greater infestation that were not possible for observation by RISAa are possible by using the Gaussian Kernel method. This method, although it has a certain subjectivity which requires knowledge from the researcher, allows a quick and easy view of the risk sites without the barriers imposed by the administrative

making it difficult to monitor and isolate outbreaks of the disease [39].

of population control as a technique of control [41].

there are no other viable alternatives [39].

dengue epidemics can occur [43, 44].

political organization [45, 46].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96088*

target population [39].

#### *Control Strategy for* Aedes aegypti *(Linnaeus, 1762) Population DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96088*

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

data and studies incorporated for decision making and discussion at all levels with ordinary citizens. It is not feasible in order to make vector control decisions.

The epidemiological surveillance system is another sector of strategic importance in the control of vectors, which houses the surveillance of cases of arboviruses (mainly Dengue) and entomological, among others. It is the responsibility of the federal, state, and municipal public authorities that should act in collaborative and synchronous ways. The focus should be on data collection, processing and analysis actions, recommendations for prevention and control measures, as well as the promotion of data collection actions; the processing of collected data; analysis and interpretation of processed data; recommendation of appropriate prevention and control measures. It can promote of the indicated prevention and control actions; evaluation of the effectiveness of the measures adopted and dissemination of

Incomplete data collection makes it impossible to estimate population risks and allows new epidemics to occur, in addition to reducing the effect of contingency plans and the response capacity of the government to respond satisfactorily in epidemic periods. It is important to carry out periodic assessments of the health surveillance system in general, in order to monitor it efficiently and effectively [38]. It is worth mentioning that the surveillance of cases of dengue and other arboviruses are important to monitor the number of suspected cases to know the time, magnitude and locations of the transmission cases. However, many asymptomatic cases result in silent transmission, so the extent of cases is underestimated. In addition, clinical detection is imprecise and laboratory diagnosis can be time-consuming, which compromises the effectiveness of vector control actions, therefore, interventions to interrupt transmission are impaired [39]. Although, it should be noted that investments in monitoring and case monitoring techniques, as well as the availability of rapid diagnostic tests in health centers, combined with an accurate reporting of each patient's data, can greatly assist in understanding the dynamics of the disease in a municipality, allowing decision-making and effective control

There is a need for the continuous training of health surveillance professionals, in addition to the constant evaluation of the surveillance system, as well as the carrying out of epidemiological studies that can contribute to interventions in dengue control not only in the state of the study, but across the country [40]. One hundred and thirty-four professionals were interviewed, 70% of whom said they were unaware of the existence of a contingency plan for coping with the dengue epidemic, 59% argued that all suspected dengue cases should be confirmed in the laboratory. Still, one-third of the participants reported difficulty in closing serious cases of dengue [40]. In this context, there is a need for the continuous training of health surveillance professionals, in addition to the constant evaluation of the surveillance system, as well as the carrying out of epidemiological studies that can contribute to interventions in

dengue control not only in the state of the study, but across the country.

O vector control must be carried out in response to information from epidemiological surveillance allowing to reduce the transmission force of these viruses, which contributes to better care for people who need treatment. For this, interventions need to be carried out at the beginning of the epidemic peak, at the risk of it being impossible to contain the increase in cases. These interventions require a large amount of human and material resources, intense work, and even the application of

Entomological surveillance for the purpose of monitoring to detect the presence and abundance of *A. aegypti*, as well as monitoring resistance to the insecticides used has the advantages of being useful in making decisions about mosquito control interventions, are indicative of the risk of epidemics, and allow the selection of

relevant information [36, 37].

methodologies aimed at that specific population.

insecticides from house to house [39].

**142**

areas and/or periods most critical to the risk of epidemics, in addition to subsidizing the use of more effective insecticides. On the other hand, the disadvantages, in addition to the high cost and low prevalence in mosquitoes. The epidemiological surveillance data are poor indicators for risk of epidemics, because, in addition to the mosquito, the presence of the virus and the population vulnerable or not to the serotype are necessarily circulating, and the vector population may even be under control and still have an epidemic due to the variables related to the virus and the target population [39].

Still, vector control in response to epidemiological data has some important problems, among which we highlight 1) the silent cases that make it difficult to monitor viruses at their onset, especially with new serotypes. 2) interventions often begin with confirmation of laboratory cases, and if this confirmation takes longer, control actions are delayed to prevent an epidemic. 3) the expansion of dengue cases occurs quickly, which makes it difficult to prevent epidemics 4) people move intensely within cities, transporting viruses throughout the city in a short time, making it difficult to monitor and isolate outbreaks of the disease [39].

About the population control of vectors, the most effective methods for the control of mosquitoes that was included a variety of insecticides aimed at controlling adult or immature insects. The implementation of effective control consists of impacting the largest proportion of the vector population. It can be demonstrated that the control strategy must be effective for the high coverage of aquatic mosquito habitats and the reach of winged forms. Among these, it is possible to use methods that use adult mosquitoes to transmit insecticides and other biological products using the behavior for the transfer and dissemination of products between resting and oviposition places in a controlled way to leave residual quantities for extension of population control as a technique of control [41].

In this regard, it is important that *A. aegypti* control activities are adapted to local conditions and their availability of resources to face and control the population. Community engagement is essential, but there are areas where a social organization or local legislation makes such engagement difficult. The application of adulticides by means of adapted vehicles is considered inefficient, often used when there are no other viable alternatives [39].

An important indicator of the mosquito infestation index in a given area or region is RISAa (Rapid Index Survey of *Aedes aegypti*), which is a control method that aggregates the building, *Breteau*, and container indices used to calculate larval density, being important for making decisions about adult mosquito control. The building and *Breteau* indices are more robust than the container index and less sensitive to show sample variations for pupae and adults indices. Pupa rates per person and per household are less robust than pupae per hectare; Similar results were found with the adult mosquito indices. By this method, each city is divided into blocks and a number calculated according to the degree of the infestation, with a satisfactory one, from 1 to 3.9 alertness and above 3.9 with the risk of the epidemic [42]. The RISAa method is unreliable for some authors because even with low rates, dengue epidemics can occur [43, 44].

The traditional method of dividing the city into blocks does not allow the visualization of the city in continuity precisely by dividing the method, which obviously the mosquito is not limited to these blocks in its locomotion in the environment. Thus, methods that can evaluate the blocks in greater detail, detecting points of greater infestation that were not possible for observation by RISAa are possible by using the Gaussian Kernel method. This method, although it has a certain subjectivity which requires knowledge from the researcher, allows a quick and easy view of the risk sites without the barriers imposed by the administrative political organization [45, 46].

It was performed an excellent non-systematic literature review [47] regarding *A. aegypti* population control strategies. The control strategies considered, such as selective monitoring of infestation, social measures, dispersion of insecticides, new biological control agents, and molecular techniques. The authors considered the integrated use of different compatible and effective techniques according to the region to be possible for the possible reduction of the vector and the related arboviruses. The authors also consider that in the case of technologies in development, they still require evaluation as to their effectiveness, feasibility, and costs for their use in conjunction with other techniques already recommended by the National Program for Dengue Control (NPDC).

However, new strategies have been proposed to control the mosquito population and reduce the incidence of diseases [48]. Among these new techniques, we have the genetic modification of mosquitoes in the laboratory, which, when released to the environment, spread the modified genes to the native population, leading to a decrease in this population or its extermination.

The use of insects inoculated with *Wolbachia* could be a step forward for vector and disease control for longer periods in endemic areas around the world. Different studies have shown that the most efficient approach to control transmission can be obtained from the finding that about 60% of insect species carry *Wolbachia pipientis*, however, it is important to note that this bacterium does not naturally infect the mosquito *A. aegypti*, having to be infected in a laboratory environment, generating some production costs for these modified insects. These results show that the technique using *Wolbachia*, which has been in development since the 1990s, could be an interesting option for the reduction of mosquito-borne diseases [49, 50].

In the same vein, the use of *Bacillus thuringiensis* for the control of larvae and mosquitoes has stood out among the various strategies that make up integrated management programs, being more advantageous in relation to chemical insecticides, both in cost and in their action. The insecticidal activity is due to the toxic proteinases present in the bacteria, which when reaching the insects' intestines unfold the protoxins creating pores that interfere with the ion transport system through the tissue membrane, resulting in insect death. Efficiency studies of this methodology affirm an efficiency of more than 70% for a period of 40 days after exposure [51].

Despite the different strategies mentioned here, summarized in **Table 1** and **Figure 1**, with their potential effectiveness, it is necessary to continue the search for methodologies to control arboviruses and their vector mosquitoes, requiring the development of diversified research involving both ecological aspects, behavior, and population biology. It was a way to increase the success of the control methods used, as well as, promoting conditions for the implementation of new control tools, including knowledge, education, and cultural habits of the population.

The authors consider that partnerships between research centers (universities and institutes) and the government are important parts for the elaboration of strategies that are more appropriate to the location with resources that can be made available for the implementation of these strategies in a pilot plan like a way to evaluate the results by epidemiological and entomological criteria [39] on a continuous basis and with reassessments of the effect achieved in the programs and strategies employed. In Brazil, municipal and state committees have been organized with the presence of members from universities and research institutes, education departments, the legislature, the armed forces, as well as others leaders of organized civil society to better articulate the actions to combat this vector. These partnerships allow articulated actions in large-scale and the solution of problems related to mosquito control in a holistic way, involving different public and private sectors for intelligent decision making.

**145**

*Control Strategy for* Aedes aegypti *(Linnaeus, 1762) Population*

**Strategies Advantages Disadvantages**

Involvement and awareness of the population in home control of mosquito breeding sites.

It allows the precise analysis of risk regions allowing the correct targeting of resources.

It has spatial coverage and reduces disease transmission at the time of

Alternative and safer products when compared to chemical insecticides. Synergistic compounds can increase the larvicidal function of natural or synthetic compounds.

span of mosquitoes; decreases infestation of mosquitoes; and dispenses with the use of radiation.

Use of microorganism that causes a natural, self-sustaining infection, does not use insecticides and

Use of larvicide already available and attested agents familiar with the type of trap used; mosquitoes take larvicides for breeding, eliminating them.

the outbreak.

Transgenic mosquitoes It leads to a reduction in the life

radiation.

It depends on the involvement of the population and the various sectors of society. Decrease in engagement during the period with the least number of cases.

Despite showing the critical regions, it is necessary to be allied with other technologies to be

Can promote selection of resistant populations insecticide; demand application agents trained; little adulticide availability.

Need of cost-effectiveness studies compared to chemical insecticide.

There is a need to use mosquito sexing technologies; depends on the protocol of release; requires constant production and release

Climatic differences, mosquito release protocols, level of urbanization and human density can limit the potential functions.

Promotes selection of resistant mosquito populations, requires insecticides with ideal concentration in small particles.

satisfactory.

mosquitoes.

Finally, the authors conclude that the erradication of *A. aegypti* by top-down approaches how it already happened in Brazil some decades ago it is impossible today because with the rapid immigration of people from rural to urban areas without minimum sanitary infrastructure promoted outbreaks each more commun. The ocurrence of four dengue serotypes allied with constant number of susceptible people to arbovirus due to migration and births during the time interval between the occurrence of an epidemic with the same serotype are the main conditions to Brazil be a favorable local to epidemies frequently. A sustanaible control of dengue and other arboviruses relationed to *A. aegypti* must have the following steps: 1) A continuous improvement of survaillance system, 2) a good control plan linked to epidemiological survaillance, 3) a selection and continuous evaluation of control strategies to *A. aegypti* adapted to each local, 4) an excellent interaction among different social actors to define, apply, evaluated and improve better solutions to each local, 5) use of compatible control strategies among each other, and 6) effort to

maintain always the engagement of local community.

*Summarization of new* Aedes aegypti *mosquito control strategies.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96088*

Educational and social

Epidemiological analysis and

approach

risk mapping

Intra and extra-home nebulization.

Natural/synthetic compounds to larvicidal

Wolbachia reduction of arbovirus transmission

Mosquitoes insecticide

dispersing

**Table 1.**

function

*Control Strategy for* Aedes aegypti *(Linnaeus, 1762) Population DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96088*


#### **Table 1.**

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

Program for Dengue Control (NPDC).

decrease in this population or its extermination.

It was performed an excellent non-systematic literature review [47] regarding *A. aegypti* population control strategies. The control strategies considered, such as selective monitoring of infestation, social measures, dispersion of insecticides, new biological control agents, and molecular techniques. The authors considered the integrated use of different compatible and effective techniques according to the region to be possible for the possible reduction of the vector and the related arboviruses. The authors also consider that in the case of technologies in development, they still require evaluation as to their effectiveness, feasibility, and costs for their use in conjunction with other techniques already recommended by the National

However, new strategies have been proposed to control the mosquito population and reduce the incidence of diseases [48]. Among these new techniques, we have the genetic modification of mosquitoes in the laboratory, which, when released to the environment, spread the modified genes to the native population, leading to a

The use of insects inoculated with *Wolbachia* could be a step forward for vector and disease control for longer periods in endemic areas around the world. Different studies have shown that the most efficient approach to control transmission can be obtained from the finding that about 60% of insect species carry *Wolbachia pipientis*, however, it is important to note that this bacterium does not naturally infect the mosquito *A. aegypti*, having to be infected in a laboratory environment, generating some production costs for these modified insects. These results show that the technique using *Wolbachia*, which has been in development since the 1990s, could be an interesting option for the reduction of mosquito-borne diseases [49, 50]. In the same vein, the use of *Bacillus thuringiensis* for the control of larvae and mosquitoes has stood out among the various strategies that make up integrated management programs, being more advantageous in relation to chemical insecticides, both in cost and in their action. The insecticidal activity is due to the toxic proteinases present in the bacteria, which when reaching the insects' intestines unfold the protoxins creating pores that interfere with the ion transport system through the tissue membrane, resulting in insect death. Efficiency studies of this methodology affirm an efficiency of more than 70% for a period of 40 days after exposure [51]. Despite the different strategies mentioned here, summarized in **Table 1** and **Figure 1**, with their potential effectiveness, it is necessary to continue the search for methodologies to control arboviruses and their vector mosquitoes, requiring the development of diversified research involving both ecological aspects, behavior, and population biology. It was a way to increase the success of the control methods used, as well as, promoting conditions for the implementation of new control tools,

including knowledge, education, and cultural habits of the population.

The authors consider that partnerships between research centers (universities and institutes) and the government are important parts for the elaboration of strategies that are more appropriate to the location with resources that can be made available for the implementation of these strategies in a pilot plan like a way to evaluate the results by epidemiological and entomological criteria [39] on a continuous basis and with reassessments of the effect achieved in the programs and strategies employed. In Brazil, municipal and state committees have been organized with the presence of members from universities and research institutes, education departments, the legislature, the armed forces, as well as others leaders of organized civil society to better articulate the actions to combat this vector. These partnerships allow articulated actions in large-scale and the solution of problems related to mosquito control in a holistic way, involving different public and private sectors for

**144**

intelligent decision making.

*Summarization of new* Aedes aegypti *mosquito control strategies.*

Finally, the authors conclude that the erradication of *A. aegypti* by top-down approaches how it already happened in Brazil some decades ago it is impossible today because with the rapid immigration of people from rural to urban areas without minimum sanitary infrastructure promoted outbreaks each more commun. The ocurrence of four dengue serotypes allied with constant number of susceptible people to arbovirus due to migration and births during the time interval between the occurrence of an epidemic with the same serotype are the main conditions to Brazil be a favorable local to epidemies frequently. A sustanaible control of dengue and other arboviruses relationed to *A. aegypti* must have the following steps: 1) A continuous improvement of survaillance system, 2) a good control plan linked to epidemiological survaillance, 3) a selection and continuous evaluation of control strategies to *A. aegypti* adapted to each local, 4) an excellent interaction among different social actors to define, apply, evaluated and improve better solutions to each local, 5) use of compatible control strategies among each other, and 6) effort to maintain always the engagement of local community.

#### **3. Conclusion**

The *Aedes aegypti* mosquito (Diptera: *Culicidae*) is adapted to the urban environment due to the large supply of artificial breeding sites which result in unsuccessful population control with a high degree of arbovirus spread and infestation in different regions of the world. In this scenario, the experiences over decades of population control, requires understanding about the reproductive success of the species and the adaptability of the vectors of the species *Aedes spp.* It is important to understand the nuances and details of the habitats, behaviors, habits and the ecology of the insect, and to plan the development of new products and strategies that are compatible with each other, that enhance the biological activity and scope of the control, that stimulate the population's adhesion proactive actions before insect proliferation and infestation and reduce possible environmental impacts.

Despite the proposal for different integrated population control strategies, such as breeding elimination, combined chemical control, genetic modification of mosquito populations, chemical control is still one of the most used tools for containing the insect and reducing impacts on public health. However, population control is still unsatisfactory due to the behavior, resistance to insecticides and survival strategies and adaptability, besides high fertility rate of the insect, which despite an apparent fragility, has overcome the restrictions and conditions imposed on its population control. Integrated preventive control is appropriate as long as it considers aspects of the behavior and habits of the target insect, residual and comprehensive activity, and that it can reduce the viability of breeding sites and eliminate, preferably, the egg banks present in the breeding sites. In addition, the voluntary service of the population in the control of the vector in homes and public spaces is essential, there is adequate sanitation infrastructure, health education for the community, stimulating the community's adherence to the vector's domestic control due to its anthropophilic habit. The reports show that immediate successes are not lasting and that all population control strategies, in isolation, present inefficiencies in the medium and long term or even that they present inconclusive results from the analysis of reduction of *Aedes* spp. infestation and disease incidence.

This chapter discusses new products, strategies and proposals for the population control of *Aedes* spp., considering different scenarios and using content and perceptions of experimental results made available by different researchers, mainly in Brazil. Careful analysis of the literature showed that most of the population control failures are probably due to the use of inadequate products to which there is resistance acquired by the insect and\or poorly planned strategies in population prevention or control or even inadequacy detection aspects, quantification of risk analysis that should be used in the control of vectors. The use of products, the strategies used and the application and\or environmental conditions are not periodically reviewed and compromise the effectiveness of the application of (bio) actives or insecticides that are used, in addition to the contribution of environmental and climatic factors and\or restrictions imposed or few resources made available for combat that severely affect control due to the low insecticidal activity of products and applications that are ineffective for resistant urban populations. Insecticidal or control products do not have a broad spectrum of activity or comprehensive control for the different forms of the insect, from egg to winged insect. The products do not have multifunctionality or are not yet presented in the form of intelligent controlled release of (bio) assets to obtain a more prolonged control of activity in breeding sites. Thus, all these control factors combined and\or applied in an inadequate manner and\or severely affect the effectiveness of the vector population control and allow the continuity of the reproduction and transmission of diseases by arbovirus, and, which still has a potential of growth for new diseases and the spread of other arboviruses due to the insect's competence and vector potential.

**147**

**Author details**

Taiana Gabriela Barbosa de Souza1

Raphael Antônio Borges Gomes3

and Antônio Pancrácio de Souza4

\*, Eduardo José de Arruda2

, Alex Martins Machado1

1 Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Três Lagoas, MS, Brazil

4 Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

2 Federal University of Grande Dourados, Dourados, MS, Brazil

3 Federal University of Ouro Preto, Ouro Preto, MG, Brazil

\*Address all correspondence to: taiana.souza@ufms.br

provided the original work is properly cited.

,

*Control Strategy for* Aedes aegypti *(Linnaeus, 1762) Population*

Based on the contents, reports and data presented, it is proposed that new perspectives of population control should consider an integration between preventive and corrective forms, if necessary, based on the combination of different products and\or techniques that are compatible and synergistic in the application, due to the acquired resistance of the insect and\or the use of control strategies and\ or applications of these products that are available in the regions. Still, it is important that applications of a single type of product or techniques are never carried out in isolation, which result in inefficient and non-lasting treatments, especially in conditions of high insect infestation mainly without considering environmental,

In this perspective, the need for a multidisciplinary approach is reinforced with the use of new technologies and products and\or combinations of different potentialized products in the form of smart devices with slow release for lasting (residual) control of the insect population, especially in breeding grounds. We can highlight as highly promising the strategies as follow: 1) an eco-bio-social approach, by focusing on social participation in insect control, in addition to compatibility with other strategies, in addition to dispensing with the use of insecticides, 2) risk mapping, by increased control accuracy, 3) *Wolbachia*, for self-sustainability and efficiency, 4) insecticide-dispersing mosquitoes, for optimization of human resources and compatibility with other strategies, in addition to combinations of techniques that can increase population control. These strategies stand out because they maintain two crucial pillars in the control of this vector: social participation

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96088*

climatic factors or local control peculiarities.

and compatibility with other control strategies.

**4. Future perspectives**

#### **4. Future perspectives**

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

The *Aedes aegypti* mosquito (Diptera: *Culicidae*) is adapted to the urban environment due to the large supply of artificial breeding sites which result in unsuccessful population control with a high degree of arbovirus spread and infestation in different regions of the world. In this scenario, the experiences over decades of population control, requires understanding about the reproductive success of the species and the adaptability of the vectors of the species *Aedes spp.* It is important to understand the nuances and details of the habitats, behaviors, habits and the ecology of the insect, and to plan the development of new products and strategies that are compatible with each other, that enhance the biological activity and scope of the control, that stimulate the population's adhesion proactive actions before insect

proliferation and infestation and reduce possible environmental impacts.

analysis of reduction of *Aedes* spp. infestation and disease incidence.

This chapter discusses new products, strategies and proposals for the population control of *Aedes* spp., considering different scenarios and using content and perceptions of experimental results made available by different researchers, mainly in Brazil. Careful analysis of the literature showed that most of the population control failures are probably due to the use of inadequate products to which there is resistance acquired by the insect and\or poorly planned strategies in population prevention or control or even inadequacy detection aspects, quantification of risk analysis that should be used in the control of vectors. The use of products, the strategies used and the application and\or environmental conditions are not periodically reviewed and compromise the effectiveness of the application of (bio) actives or insecticides that are used, in addition to the contribution of environmental and climatic factors and\or restrictions imposed or few resources made available for combat that severely affect control due to the low insecticidal activity of products and applications that are ineffective for resistant urban populations. Insecticidal or control products do not have a broad spectrum of activity or comprehensive control for the different forms of the insect, from egg to winged insect. The products do not have multifunctionality or are not yet presented in the form of intelligent controlled release of (bio) assets to obtain a more prolonged control of activity in breeding sites. Thus, all these control factors combined and\or applied in an inadequate manner and\or severely affect the effectiveness of the vector population control and allow the continuity of the reproduction and transmission of diseases by arbovirus, and, which still has a potential of growth for new diseases and the spread of other arboviruses due to the insect's competence and vector potential.

Despite the proposal for different integrated population control strategies, such as breeding elimination, combined chemical control, genetic modification of mosquito populations, chemical control is still one of the most used tools for containing the insect and reducing impacts on public health. However, population control is still unsatisfactory due to the behavior, resistance to insecticides and survival strategies and adaptability, besides high fertility rate of the insect, which despite an apparent fragility, has overcome the restrictions and conditions imposed on its population control. Integrated preventive control is appropriate as long as it considers aspects of the behavior and habits of the target insect, residual and comprehensive activity, and that it can reduce the viability of breeding sites and eliminate, preferably, the egg banks present in the breeding sites. In addition, the voluntary service of the population in the control of the vector in homes and public spaces is essential, there is adequate sanitation infrastructure, health education for the community, stimulating the community's adherence to the vector's domestic control due to its anthropophilic habit. The reports show that immediate successes are not lasting and that all population control strategies, in isolation, present inefficiencies in the medium and long term or even that they present inconclusive results from the

**3. Conclusion**

**146**

Based on the contents, reports and data presented, it is proposed that new perspectives of population control should consider an integration between preventive and corrective forms, if necessary, based on the combination of different products and\or techniques that are compatible and synergistic in the application, due to the acquired resistance of the insect and\or the use of control strategies and\ or applications of these products that are available in the regions. Still, it is important that applications of a single type of product or techniques are never carried out in isolation, which result in inefficient and non-lasting treatments, especially in conditions of high insect infestation mainly without considering environmental, climatic factors or local control peculiarities.

In this perspective, the need for a multidisciplinary approach is reinforced with the use of new technologies and products and\or combinations of different potentialized products in the form of smart devices with slow release for lasting (residual) control of the insect population, especially in breeding grounds. We can highlight as highly promising the strategies as follow: 1) an eco-bio-social approach, by focusing on social participation in insect control, in addition to compatibility with other strategies, in addition to dispensing with the use of insecticides, 2) risk mapping, by increased control accuracy, 3) *Wolbachia*, for self-sustainability and efficiency, 4) insecticide-dispersing mosquitoes, for optimization of human resources and compatibility with other strategies, in addition to combinations of techniques that can increase population control. These strategies stand out because they maintain two crucial pillars in the control of this vector: social participation and compatibility with other control strategies.

### **Author details**

Taiana Gabriela Barbosa de Souza1 \*, Eduardo José de Arruda2 , Raphael Antônio Borges Gomes3 , Alex Martins Machado1 and Antônio Pancrácio de Souza4


\*Address all correspondence to: taiana.souza@ufms.br

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Brown JE, Evans B, Zheng W, Abas V, Barrera-Martinez L, Egizi A, Zhao H, Caccone A, Powell JR. Human impacts have shaped historical and recent evolution in *Aedes aegypti*, the dengue and yellow fever mosquito. Evolution. 2014:68(2):514-525. DOI: 10.1111/ evo.12281.

[2] Salles TS, Sá-Guimarães TE, Alvarenga ESL, Guimarães-Ribeiro V, Meneses MDF, Castro-Salles PF, dos Santos CR, Melo ACA, Soares MR, Ferreira DF, Moreira MF. History, epidemiology and diagnostics of dengue in the American and Brazilian contexts: a review. Parasites & Vectors. 2018:11(1):264. DOI: 10.1186/ s13071-018-2830-8.

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[47] Feitosa FRS, Sobral IS, Silva MSF, Jesus EM. Estratégias de prevenção e controle da Dengue em Aracajú: Potencialidades e fragilidades. Caminhos de Geografia. 2016:17(60):149-168.

[48] Callaway E. The mosquito strategy that could eliminate dengue. Nature news 27 August 2020. DOI: 10.1038/ d41586-020-02492-1.

[49] Hammond A, Galizi R, Kyrou K, Simoni A, Siniscalchi C, Katsanos D, Gribble M, Baker D, Marois E, Russell S, Burt A, Windbichler N, Crisanti A, Nolan T. A CRISPR-Cas9 gene drive system targeting female reproduction in the malaria mosquito vector Anopheles gambiae. Nature Biotechnology. 2016:34:78-83. DOI: 10.1038/nbt.3439.

[50] Gantz VM, Jasinskiene N, Tatarenkova O, Fazekas A, Macias VM, Bier E, James AA. Highly efficient Cas9 mediated gene drive for population modification of the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles stephensi. Nature Biotechnol. 2015:112(49):E6736-E6743. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1521077112.

[51] Boyce R, Lenhart A, Kroeger A, Velayudhan R, Roberts B, Horstick O. *Bacillus thuringiensis* israelenses (Bti) for control of Dengue vectors: systematic literature review. Tropical Medicine International Health. 2013:18(5). DOI: 10.1111/tmi.12087.

**153**

**Chapter 10**

**Abstract**

Vector Control

protocols based on these findings.

stimulated interest in mosquito research [3, 4].

**1. Introduction**

Environmental Manipulation:

A Potential Tool for Mosquito

*Ukubuiwe Azubuike Christian, Olayemi Israel Kayode,* 

*Ukubuiwe Catherine Chinenye and Ugbede Bright Sule*

**Keywords:** *Aedes*, *Anopheles*, Biological Fitness, *Culex*, Vector Competence

Mosquitoes are dipterans of the family Culicidae and are important in public health because of the bloodsucking habits of the females and transmission of important human diseases such as yellow fever, malaria, filariasis, and dengue [1]. Mosquitoes have three subfamilies namely, Anophelinae, Culicinae, and Toxorhynchintae. Among these, only Anophelinae and Culicinae contain medically important Genera (*Aedes, Anopheles,* and *Culex*) that are efficient in disease transmission [2]. The discovery of the role played by mosquitoes in disease transmission and the need to develop cost-effective and species-specific control measures, through sound understanding of the biology and ecology of these vectors, have

Mosquitoes have four life stages (egg, larva, pupa, and adult). The egg, larval (comprising of four instars), and pupal stages are all aquatic. Collectively, these stages take about 7 to 14 days to complete development, depending on ambient temperature, as they are cold-blooded. Apart from temperature, other factors also affect the developmental times of mosquitoes. These include photoperiod, density, feed quality and quantity, salinity, hardness, nitrate and sulphate contents, and water pH. The behaviour of mosquitoes determines their importance/ status as nuisance insects or pathogen vectors, therefore, governs the selection of control methods [5, 6]. Most female mosquitoes depend on blood from animals or humans for

Mosquito borne diseases have continued to ravage man and his animals despite efforts to curb its spread. The use of chemicals has been the main thrust for control of all life stages of mosquitoes. Increased resistance to commonly used insecticides has called for renewed effort for vector control. Environmental management for vector control is one of the new strategies developed to tackle the menace of vectors. Manipulation of abiotic factors has widely gained acceptance due to laboratory and semi-field trials and findings. In this chapter, we reviewed literatures on some critical abiotic factors and their effects on bionomics and biological fitness of immature and adult life stages of mosquito species. We also looked at prospects for developing

#### **Chapter 10**

## Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control

*Ukubuiwe Azubuike Christian, Olayemi Israel Kayode, Ukubuiwe Catherine Chinenye and Ugbede Bright Sule*

#### **Abstract**

Mosquito borne diseases have continued to ravage man and his animals despite efforts to curb its spread. The use of chemicals has been the main thrust for control of all life stages of mosquitoes. Increased resistance to commonly used insecticides has called for renewed effort for vector control. Environmental management for vector control is one of the new strategies developed to tackle the menace of vectors. Manipulation of abiotic factors has widely gained acceptance due to laboratory and semi-field trials and findings. In this chapter, we reviewed literatures on some critical abiotic factors and their effects on bionomics and biological fitness of immature and adult life stages of mosquito species. We also looked at prospects for developing protocols based on these findings.

**Keywords:** *Aedes*, *Anopheles*, Biological Fitness, *Culex*, Vector Competence

#### **1. Introduction**

Mosquitoes are dipterans of the family Culicidae and are important in public health because of the bloodsucking habits of the females and transmission of important human diseases such as yellow fever, malaria, filariasis, and dengue [1]. Mosquitoes have three subfamilies namely, Anophelinae, Culicinae, and Toxorhynchintae. Among these, only Anophelinae and Culicinae contain medically important Genera (*Aedes, Anopheles,* and *Culex*) that are efficient in disease transmission [2]. The discovery of the role played by mosquitoes in disease transmission and the need to develop cost-effective and species-specific control measures, through sound understanding of the biology and ecology of these vectors, have stimulated interest in mosquito research [3, 4].

Mosquitoes have four life stages (egg, larva, pupa, and adult). The egg, larval (comprising of four instars), and pupal stages are all aquatic. Collectively, these stages take about 7 to 14 days to complete development, depending on ambient temperature, as they are cold-blooded. Apart from temperature, other factors also affect the developmental times of mosquitoes. These include photoperiod, density, feed quality and quantity, salinity, hardness, nitrate and sulphate contents, and water pH.

The behaviour of mosquitoes determines their importance/ status as nuisance insects or pathogen vectors, therefore, governs the selection of control methods [5, 6]. Most female mosquitoes depend on blood from animals or humans for

maturation of their eggs [7]. Species that prefer to feed on animals are usually not very effective in transmitting human diseases [8–10], while those that rest indoors are usually the easiest to control [11].

Mosquitoes are the most important insect of public health concern, basically due to their nuisance, ferocious and infective female bites. Diseases spread by female bites, for example, malaria have been responsible for millions of deaths, especially, of pregnant mothers, children below the age of five, and immunecompromised individuals [12, 13]. The brunt of the scourge of mosquito vectorborne diseases (MVDs) is exceptionally high in Tropical and Subtropical climates. This is due in part to clemency of the weather conditions, rapid urbanisation, high anthropogenic activities, proliferation of suitable breeding habitats, among others [14, 15]. In Temperate climes, diseases such as malaria has been eradicated, although, there are risks of reintroduction due to increased human movement and climate change [16]. However, some MVDs, especially, those transmitted by Culicines (e.g., West Nile fever, Dengue, and Chikungunya) are still prevalent and are of significant public health concern in these countries [17]. There is, therefore, need for effective, efficient and eco-friendly vector control tool for mosquito eradication and prevention of disease.

Despite concerted efforts towards mosquito eradication, multi-faceted epidemiological factors have impeded the complete eradication of MVDs, especially in low income countries. These factors include, but are not limited to lack of social and political will from stakeholders, poor budgetary allocations, insufficient manpower, variation in the biology of principal and secondary vectors of the disease. Among these factors, the biology of vector species has received numerous attentions with a lot of scientific publications on the subject matter. In fact, sound knowledge of the biology of mosquito vectors is important for successful implementation of control intervention protocols. This is, exceptionally so, as spatio-temporal variations in biology and genetics of species complex and sibling species [18].

The use of chemical insecticides has been man's foremost weapon against these vectors. However, increased incidence of (cross- and class-) resistance to insecticides by most vector species, with the attendant environmental concerns have necessitated significant reduction in the application or overall ban of some chemical insecticide formulations [19]. There is, therefore, need to develop an alternative robust protocol that would be devoid of the pitfalls of chemical insecticides. Among these alternatives is the integrated vector management (IVM), based on Environmental Management of Vectors (EMVs). The EMVs has proven to be most effective and efficient in this regards [20].

#### **2. Chemical control, the Main thrust of mosquito vector control**

Chemical control of mosquito vectors involves the use of chemicals, either synthetic or organic to reduce vector population or contacts with human hosts or their animals. Chemical agents that reduce mosquito vector populations are referred to as chemical insecticides and are usually designed to target various life stages of the mosquitoes. Hence, there are ovicides, larvicides, pupicides, and adulticides, for the control of eggs, larvae, pupae and adult life stages, respectively. Other chemicals produced for control include repellents, oviposition deterrents, among others. Chemical insecticides used in various forms such as aerosols, indoor residual sprays, impregnated household materials, repellents, larvicides among others have contributed, substantially, to the reduction of MVDs in most countries. The introduction and improvement of these chemical agents have mitigated the disease burdens by reducing the vector population.

**155**

*Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control*

in reducing vector population and, hence vectored diseases.

or behaviour to reduce vector-human contact [20].

shading and exposure to sunlight [25].

the human blood source [26].

Despite the initial gains of chemical insecticides in global eradication of vectorborne diseases, cases of increased insecticide resistance have been reported globally. Mosquitoes have developed class- and/or cross-resistance to insecticides, with various mechanisms of resistance (metabolic, physiological, anatomical, or behavioural). Further, environmental studies have shown persistence of some of these chemicals in the environment over decades [21], with cases of destruction and even elimination of non-target and beneficial organisms in the ecosystem. Some degree of mammalian toxicity has also been reported for some of these insecticides. These pitfalls of chemical control methods have necessitated the call for the development of other environmentally safe control protocols which will be efficient and effective

Several alternatives to chemical control methods have been developed against mosquitoes. These include biological, cultural, legal, and genetic control methods. However, the need to integrate these diverse control strategies towards reducing vector population has given rise to Integrated Mosquito

A successful larval control protocol requires adequate knowledge of breeding ecology of the vector including, the developmental environmental requirements of

The World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1982, developed the EMVs - a subset of the Concept of Integrated Vector Control - as a roadmap for the control of major vectors and intermediate hosts of diseases. Environmental management activities for vector control involves planning, organisation, carrying out and monitoring activities for the modification and/or manipulation of environmental factors or their interaction with man to prevent or minimise vector propagation and reducing man-vector-pathogen contact [25–27]. Environmental Management of Vector (EVMs) involves three strategies, namely, environmental modification, environmental manipulation, and modification and/or manipulation of human habitation

Environmental Modification involves physical alterations of land, water and vegetation, which are usually permanent or long−lasting, aimed at preventing, removing or reducing the habitats of vectors without causing unduly adverse effects on the quality of the human environment. Activities enlisted under this include drainage, filling, land levelling and transformation and impoundment margins [20]. The second aspect, Environmental Manipulation, consists of any planned recurrent activity aimed at producing temporary conditions unfavourable to the breeding of vectors in their habitats (this is the focus of this chapter). Strategies involved include water salinity changes, stream flushing, water level regulation in reservoirs, dewatering or flooding of swamps or boggy areas, vegetation removal,

While, the third aspect, modification of human habitation and/or behaviour, involves strategies that reduce man − vector−pathogen contact. Examples of this approach include siting of human settlements away from vector sources, mosquito proofing of houses, personal protection and hygiene measures against vectors. Others include provision of mechanical barriers and facilities for water supply, wastewater and excreta disposal, laundry, bathing and recreation to prevent or discourage human contact with infested waters, and zoo-prophylaxis, the placement and provision of an alternate blood meal source to divert vectors away from

**3. Environmental Management in Integrated Vector Control**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

Management (IMM).

the immatures [22–24].

#### *Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

maturation of their eggs [7]. Species that prefer to feed on animals are usually not very effective in transmitting human diseases [8–10], while those that rest indoors

Mosquitoes are the most important insect of public health concern, basically due to their nuisance, ferocious and infective female bites. Diseases spread by female bites, for example, malaria have been responsible for millions of deaths, especially, of pregnant mothers, children below the age of five, and immunecompromised individuals [12, 13]. The brunt of the scourge of mosquito vectorborne diseases (MVDs) is exceptionally high in Tropical and Subtropical climates. This is due in part to clemency of the weather conditions, rapid urbanisation, high anthropogenic activities, proliferation of suitable breeding habitats, among others [14, 15]. In Temperate climes, diseases such as malaria has been eradicated, although, there are risks of reintroduction due to increased human movement and climate change [16]. However, some MVDs, especially, those transmitted by Culicines (e.g., West Nile fever, Dengue, and Chikungunya) are still prevalent and are of significant public health concern in these countries [17]. There is, therefore, need for effective, efficient and eco-friendly vector control tool for mosquito

Despite concerted efforts towards mosquito eradication, multi-faceted epidemiological factors have impeded the complete eradication of MVDs, especially in low income countries. These factors include, but are not limited to lack of social and political will from stakeholders, poor budgetary allocations, insufficient manpower, variation in the biology of principal and secondary vectors of the disease. Among these factors, the biology of vector species has received numerous attentions with a lot of scientific publications on the subject matter. In fact, sound knowledge of the biology of mosquito vectors is important for successful implementation of control intervention protocols. This is, exceptionally so, as spatio-temporal variations in

The use of chemical insecticides has been man's foremost weapon against these vectors. However, increased incidence of (cross- and class-) resistance to insecticides by most vector species, with the attendant environmental concerns have necessitated significant reduction in the application or overall ban of some chemical

insecticide formulations [19]. There is, therefore, need to develop an alternative robust protocol that would be devoid of the pitfalls of chemical insecticides. Among these alternatives is the integrated vector management (IVM), based on Environmental Management of Vectors (EMVs). The EMVs has proven to be most

**2. Chemical control, the Main thrust of mosquito vector control**

Chemical control of mosquito vectors involves the use of chemicals, either synthetic or organic to reduce vector population or contacts with human hosts or their animals. Chemical agents that reduce mosquito vector populations are referred to as chemical insecticides and are usually designed to target various life stages of the mosquitoes. Hence, there are ovicides, larvicides, pupicides, and adulticides, for the control of eggs, larvae, pupae and adult life stages, respectively. Other chemicals produced for control include repellents, oviposition deterrents, among others. Chemical insecticides used in various forms such as aerosols, indoor residual sprays, impregnated household materials, repellents, larvicides among others have contributed, substantially, to the reduction of MVDs in most countries. The introduction and improvement of these chemical agents have mitigated the disease burdens by

biology and genetics of species complex and sibling species [18].

are usually the easiest to control [11].

eradication and prevention of disease.

effective and efficient in this regards [20].

reducing the vector population.

**154**

Despite the initial gains of chemical insecticides in global eradication of vectorborne diseases, cases of increased insecticide resistance have been reported globally. Mosquitoes have developed class- and/or cross-resistance to insecticides, with various mechanisms of resistance (metabolic, physiological, anatomical, or behavioural). Further, environmental studies have shown persistence of some of these chemicals in the environment over decades [21], with cases of destruction and even elimination of non-target and beneficial organisms in the ecosystem. Some degree of mammalian toxicity has also been reported for some of these insecticides. These pitfalls of chemical control methods have necessitated the call for the development of other environmentally safe control protocols which will be efficient and effective in reducing vector population and, hence vectored diseases.

Several alternatives to chemical control methods have been developed against mosquitoes. These include biological, cultural, legal, and genetic control methods. However, the need to integrate these diverse control strategies towards reducing vector population has given rise to Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM).

#### **3. Environmental Management in Integrated Vector Control**

A successful larval control protocol requires adequate knowledge of breeding ecology of the vector including, the developmental environmental requirements of the immatures [22–24].

The World Health Organisation (WHO) in 1982, developed the EMVs - a subset of the Concept of Integrated Vector Control - as a roadmap for the control of major vectors and intermediate hosts of diseases. Environmental management activities for vector control involves planning, organisation, carrying out and monitoring activities for the modification and/or manipulation of environmental factors or their interaction with man to prevent or minimise vector propagation and reducing man-vector-pathogen contact [25–27]. Environmental Management of Vector (EVMs) involves three strategies, namely, environmental modification, environmental manipulation, and modification and/or manipulation of human habitation or behaviour to reduce vector-human contact [20].

Environmental Modification involves physical alterations of land, water and vegetation, which are usually permanent or long−lasting, aimed at preventing, removing or reducing the habitats of vectors without causing unduly adverse effects on the quality of the human environment. Activities enlisted under this include drainage, filling, land levelling and transformation and impoundment margins [20]. The second aspect, Environmental Manipulation, consists of any planned recurrent activity aimed at producing temporary conditions unfavourable to the breeding of vectors in their habitats (this is the focus of this chapter). Strategies involved include water salinity changes, stream flushing, water level regulation in reservoirs, dewatering or flooding of swamps or boggy areas, vegetation removal, shading and exposure to sunlight [25].

While, the third aspect, modification of human habitation and/or behaviour, involves strategies that reduce man − vector−pathogen contact. Examples of this approach include siting of human settlements away from vector sources, mosquito proofing of houses, personal protection and hygiene measures against vectors. Others include provision of mechanical barriers and facilities for water supply, wastewater and excreta disposal, laundry, bathing and recreation to prevent or discourage human contact with infested waters, and zoo-prophylaxis, the placement and provision of an alternate blood meal source to divert vectors away from the human blood source [26].

Environmental modification and human habitation and/or behaviour modification have been fully investigated and the outcomes implemented. These results have resulted in major reductions in the epidemiology of the diseases transmitted by some vectors, generally, and mosquitoes in particular. Yet, the diseases vectored by mosquitoes continue to ravage mankind due to either changes in vectors' biology over time, or ineffectiveness of these methods to fit into current trends of Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM) protocols.

Environmental manipulation techniques, on the other hand, provide a sustainable remedy to mosquito vector control, as its ultimate goal is to produce adult mosquitoes which are less fit as vectors by changing the quality of established mosquito breeding habitats. However, environmental manipulation approaches have not been fully exploited, especially, in terms of changing vital developmental components/factors of the vector's environment to reduce biological fitness. Such strategies are promising as they are always targeted at the weakest link (larvae) in development of the vector.

Although these developmental factors act together (antagonistically or synergistically) to affect the growth of mosquitoes in the wild, laboratory studies have shown their individual contribution to vector success. It is hoped that manipulating these developmental components in the wild will produce adult life stages that are less fit as vectors, hence, disrupting the chain of disease transmission [26, 28].

#### **4. Environmental manipulation of mosquito habitats**

Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM) protocols based on manipulation of vector's micro-habitat, especially during development, is promising to be an effective strategy in the control of the major disease-causing vectors. The goal of this control approach (Environmental Manipulation) is not to eradicate mosquitoes from the surface of the earth, as it is often advocated, but to identify the environmental factor (s)/variable (s) that contribute (s) to their success, manipulate them to the extent of producing mosquito species which are not fit as vectors of diseases.

Understanding species-specific effects of environmental factor on the bionomics of mosquitoes will be valuable in developing control protocols [20, 26]. One advantage of such protocol is that it will target the weakest link (larvae) during development. Apart from higher vulnerability to toxic materials, larvae are confined within the water body and do not migrate away from toxic environment, unlike adult life stage. More so, application of such protocol would either be species-specific or broad-ranged, depending on the specific developmental requirements of the vectors, and would not require special expertise or training.

#### **5. Abiotic components of mosquito habitats**

In mosquito ecology, abiotic components are sometimes referred to as physiochemical factors, and include water conditions such as pH, salinity, hardness, alkalinity, temperature, sulphate, nitrate and phosphate contents, etc. These factors affect mosquito larval bionomics in diverse ways and determine spatio-temporal abundance, distribution and biological fitness of mosquito species. Extensive studies have been carried out either in combination or as a single factor on influence of some of these factors on mosquito biology. With some studies transcending larval bionomics to adult bionomics and filial generations. Mosquitoes have shown limits of tolerance, with some degree of adaptability to these factors.

**157**

reserves.

adult vector.

*Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control*

In nature, physio-chemical factors interact in diverse ways to affect the phenotype and genotype of mosquito species, there is, therefore, need for semi-field and field trials of results from laboratory studies. Further, since there is 'no physiology of mosquito' [29], influence of abiotic factors on specific vector's bionomics is key in understanding their roles in mosquito development and disease transmission.

**6. Influence of selected abiotic factors on bionomics of mosquitoes**

For the sake of this chapter, a concise and systematic review of the contributions of some abiotic factors to the development of mosquitoes and the possibility of developing novel control intervention will be taken. More elaborate discussions of the subject matter can be found in other publications. Further, the review will be on critical indices of disease transmission in mosquito: duration of development, larval growth rate, immature survivorship, number of adults at emergence, adult longevity and survivorship, wing-based indices, body size, and metabolic

Duration of development is the time taken to complete pre-imaginal life stages (i.e., from egg to pupae). This is critical to biological fitness as longer developmental times affect resource mobilisation and reduce vector-host contact frequencies [30], among others. Larval growth rate indicates the daily rate of biomass accumulation during the photoperiod (larval stage). It estimates daily weight gain as larvae which is critical to successful adult life traits [31]. Immature survivorship is an index of developmental success of a species, and indicates maternal reproductive

Number of adults at emergence and sex ratio determines mating frequencies, time before sexual maturity (in male mosquitoes). These are critical for swarming, host-seeking and laying of fertile eggs. Adult longevity and survivorship is an indication of life span of mosquito when fed either energy source alone (sucrose) or in combination with blood meal [32]. These are crucial for extrinsic incubation period within female mosquitoes; disease pathogens complete development in longer-lived

Wing-based indices include measurements like wing length, surface area and fluctuating asymmetry. In mosquito physiology, wing length is a proxy for entomological indices such as body size, weight, fecundity [33, 34], longevity [35], hostfinding success [36], blood-feeding success [37], survivorship [38] and vectorial capacity; all these influence biological fitness of the vector for disease parasite transmission. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is commonly used as a measure of stress

The body size of adult females influences the number of blood meals acquired and required to complete the first gonotrophic cycle and the number of eggs [41] as smaller females take longer to achieve reproduction and produce fewer off-springs. Metabolic reserves of epidemiological interests are protein, lipid, glucose and glycogen. Most female mosquitoes require blood meals to provision and mature eggs (i.e. fecundity), however, the first ovarian cycle is determined by metabolic reserves, especially that derived from larval nourishment [42]. Autogenous mosquitos do not require blood meals to lay the first few batches of eggs, unlike anautogenous species, where blood meal in addition to larval-derived nutrient reserves is a prerequisite to laying eggs [43, 44]. Metabolic reserves of newly emerged adults (teneral reserves) affect important female reproductive processes, such as the utilisation of reserves, fecundity, longevity, flight, the formation of new tissues and organs, and

during development, and fitness of adult mosquitoes [39, 40].

blood meal consumption and utilisation [45].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

success and ensures generation continuity [32].

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

Mosquito Management (IMM) protocols.

development of the vector.

Environmental modification and human habitation and/or behaviour modification have been fully investigated and the outcomes implemented. These results have resulted in major reductions in the epidemiology of the diseases transmitted by some vectors, generally, and mosquitoes in particular. Yet, the diseases vectored by mosquitoes continue to ravage mankind due to either changes in vectors' biology over time, or ineffectiveness of these methods to fit into current trends of Integrated

Environmental manipulation techniques, on the other hand, provide a sustainable remedy to mosquito vector control, as its ultimate goal is to produce adult mosquitoes which are less fit as vectors by changing the quality of established mosquito breeding habitats. However, environmental manipulation approaches have not been fully exploited, especially, in terms of changing vital developmental components/factors of the vector's environment to reduce biological fitness. Such strategies are promising as they are always targeted at the weakest link (larvae) in

Although these developmental factors act together (antagonistically or synergistically) to affect the growth of mosquitoes in the wild, laboratory studies have shown their individual contribution to vector success. It is hoped that manipulating these developmental components in the wild will produce adult life stages that are less fit as vectors, hence, disrupting the chain of disease transmission [26, 28].

Integrated Mosquito Management (IMM) protocols based on manipulation of vector's micro-habitat, especially during development, is promising to be an effective strategy in the control of the major disease-causing vectors. The goal of this control approach (Environmental Manipulation) is not to eradicate mosquitoes from the surface of the earth, as it is often advocated, but to identify the environmental factor (s)/variable (s) that contribute (s) to their success, manipulate them to the extent of producing mosquito species which are not fit as vectors of diseases. Understanding species-specific effects of environmental factor on the bionomics of mosquitoes will be valuable in developing control protocols [20, 26]. One advantage of such protocol is that it will target the weakest link (larvae) during development. Apart from higher vulnerability to toxic materials, larvae are confined within the water body and do not migrate away from toxic environment, unlike adult life stage. More so, application of such protocol would either be species-specific or broad-ranged, depending on the specific developmental requirements of the vectors,

In mosquito ecology, abiotic components are sometimes referred to as physiochemical factors, and include water conditions such as pH, salinity, hardness, alkalinity, temperature, sulphate, nitrate and phosphate contents, etc. These factors affect mosquito larval bionomics in diverse ways and determine spatio-temporal abundance, distribution and biological fitness of mosquito species. Extensive studies have been carried out either in combination or as a single factor on influence of some of these factors on mosquito biology. With some studies transcending larval bionomics to adult bionomics and filial generations. Mosquitoes have shown limits

**4. Environmental manipulation of mosquito habitats**

and would not require special expertise or training.

**5. Abiotic components of mosquito habitats**

of tolerance, with some degree of adaptability to these factors.

**156**

In nature, physio-chemical factors interact in diverse ways to affect the phenotype and genotype of mosquito species, there is, therefore, need for semi-field and field trials of results from laboratory studies. Further, since there is 'no physiology of mosquito' [29], influence of abiotic factors on specific vector's bionomics is key in understanding their roles in mosquito development and disease transmission.

#### **6. Influence of selected abiotic factors on bionomics of mosquitoes**

For the sake of this chapter, a concise and systematic review of the contributions of some abiotic factors to the development of mosquitoes and the possibility of developing novel control intervention will be taken. More elaborate discussions of the subject matter can be found in other publications. Further, the review will be on critical indices of disease transmission in mosquito: duration of development, larval growth rate, immature survivorship, number of adults at emergence, adult longevity and survivorship, wing-based indices, body size, and metabolic reserves.

Duration of development is the time taken to complete pre-imaginal life stages (i.e., from egg to pupae). This is critical to biological fitness as longer developmental times affect resource mobilisation and reduce vector-host contact frequencies [30], among others. Larval growth rate indicates the daily rate of biomass accumulation during the photoperiod (larval stage). It estimates daily weight gain as larvae which is critical to successful adult life traits [31]. Immature survivorship is an index of developmental success of a species, and indicates maternal reproductive success and ensures generation continuity [32].

Number of adults at emergence and sex ratio determines mating frequencies, time before sexual maturity (in male mosquitoes). These are critical for swarming, host-seeking and laying of fertile eggs. Adult longevity and survivorship is an indication of life span of mosquito when fed either energy source alone (sucrose) or in combination with blood meal [32]. These are crucial for extrinsic incubation period within female mosquitoes; disease pathogens complete development in longer-lived adult vector.

Wing-based indices include measurements like wing length, surface area and fluctuating asymmetry. In mosquito physiology, wing length is a proxy for entomological indices such as body size, weight, fecundity [33, 34], longevity [35], hostfinding success [36], blood-feeding success [37], survivorship [38] and vectorial capacity; all these influence biological fitness of the vector for disease parasite transmission. Fluctuating asymmetry (FA) is commonly used as a measure of stress during development, and fitness of adult mosquitoes [39, 40].

The body size of adult females influences the number of blood meals acquired and required to complete the first gonotrophic cycle and the number of eggs [41] as smaller females take longer to achieve reproduction and produce fewer off-springs. Metabolic reserves of epidemiological interests are protein, lipid, glucose and glycogen. Most female mosquitoes require blood meals to provision and mature eggs (i.e. fecundity), however, the first ovarian cycle is determined by metabolic reserves, especially that derived from larval nourishment [42]. Autogenous mosquitos do not require blood meals to lay the first few batches of eggs, unlike anautogenous species, where blood meal in addition to larval-derived nutrient reserves is a prerequisite to laying eggs [43, 44]. Metabolic reserves of newly emerged adults (teneral reserves) affect important female reproductive processes, such as the utilisation of reserves, fecundity, longevity, flight, the formation of new tissues and organs, and blood meal consumption and utilisation [45].

#### **6.1 Water temperature**

As cold-blooded organisms, mosquitoes rely on environmental temperature for all metabolic life processes. Literature on influence of temperature on mosquitoes abounds, however, an attempt will be made to summarise these for the sake of this chapter. Temperature zones of the world have been broadly categorised into Tropical/Sub-tropical and Temperate climates. Tropical and sub-tropical climates have relatively high temperatures, while temperate climates have colder to freezing temperatures. The response of mosquitoes from these climes to temperature are different, hence, predictions on development and biology based on prevailing temperatures would be also different [46, 47]. In the tropics and sub-tropics, with all-year-round favourable developmental temperatures, the influence of temperature is extremely strong. Apart from facilitating all year proliferation of mosquitoes, these temperatures also favour development of parasites within the vectors. In temperate climes, however, where extremely cold to freezing temperatures abound, mosquito development is often slow, and at times, halted during adverse weather conditions. These also affect the development of pathogen in the vectors [17].

Information on the influence of temperature on fitness indices at both immature and adult life stages can be employed in developing novel control strategies. Temperature change during development in mosquitoes produce different phenotypes [48–52], endowed with different genotypes. Future genetic studies can be based on these phenotypes.

Mosquitoes are adapted to surviving and reproducing at specific temperature ranges and, thus, have different thermal limits. Temperatures outside these limits lead to disruption of biological processes, or often death. Exposure to high temperatures result in denaturing of proteins, alteration of cell membranes, enzyme structures and properties, pH and ion concentrations, destroying wax complex of the cuticle, leading and desiccation due to evaporation [53].

Genera and species differential responses to lethal temperatures at given time ranges have been reported. Ambient temperature affects mosquito proliferation [54, 55]. Colder temperatures delay embryo eclosion, reduce hatch rate [56], and developmental rate [57]. While higher temperatures elicit faster pupation [58–60], reduced ecdysis [61] and longevity [62].

Olayemi *et al.* [48] reported shorter duration of development in *Cx. quinquefasciatus* mosquito*,* with increase in temperature: taking as low as 6 days at 34°C*.* This was, however, accompanied by reduced immature survivorship at temperatures above 30°C for the species. Ukubuiwe *et al.* [49] reported a linear relationship between temperature increase and growth rates and duration of development in *Cx. quinquefasciatus* and a negative relationship between temperature and immature life stages' survivorship*.* Similar observations have been recorded for *An. gambiae* [57], *Ae. krombeini* [63], and *Cx. tarsalis* [64].

Although high temperatures are associated with faster development, several studies have observed significant reduction in the number of adults at emergence and longevity (with increasing temperature) in mosquitoes such as *Cx. tarsalis* [65], *An. gambiae* [62], *An. sergentii* [66], *Ae. albopictus* [61] and *Cx. quinquefasciatus* [49]*.* Altering developmental temperature above the upper thermal limit will, therefore, increase immature life stage mortality, reduced adult emergence and human-vector contacts. Temperature change also affect post-emergence longevity in mosquitoes. Adult *Cx. quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes lived the longest at 30°C, whereas, at 34°C, longevity was significantly reduced [49]. High temperatures reduce adult daily survivorship in *Cx. apicinus* and *Cx. hepperi* [67]. In *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* female mosquitoes survived more than the male species at all temperatures investigated [49].

**159**

pH 7.0 [28].

**6.3 Water hardness**

*Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control*

Wing lengths reduce with increase in temperature. This is, however, speciesspecific. In *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* temperatures above 30°C reduced ptero-fitness [48]. Other researchers have reported similar temperature-dependent variation in adult wing lengths in *An. merus* [68], *An. quadrimaculatus* [50], *Cx. apicinus* [67]

Body parts of immature mosquitoes are also affected by water temperature change. Higher water temperatures reduced larval body length, width, and volume and pupal cephalothoracic length in *Cx. pipiens* mosquitoes [40], *An. merus* [68],

There are scanty published data on the influence of temperature on metabolic reserves in mosquitoes. In *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* mosquitoes reared at 34°C had the lowest of all metabolic reserves, while higher reserves were recorded at 30°C [49]. Therefore, for this species, biological fitness of this species is enhanced at 30°C. Therefore, techniques designed to increase developmental temperature above this,

Another important immature breeding factor is water pH. Level of water pH level depends on its carbonic acid equilibrium. Just as for temperature, there are permissible tolerance limits for most aquatic organism, including mosquitoes. Outside these limits, developmental processes and normal physiology are affected [69–71]. Water pH is affects availability of essential mineral and food elements for development of mosquitoes, thereby, distribution [72], and survivorship of mosquitoes [73]. Field studies have reported strong positive correlation between pH and the quality of mosquito habitats [72, 74]. Studies have also shown that mosquito larvae adapt to and tolerate fluctuations in ionic levels in these habitats [75–77]. Even though water pH regulates growth in mosquito species, adaptation has been reported in some vector species. For Aedine mosquitoes, species-specific tolerance ranges have been reported [74, 78]. *Culex pipiens* showed limited survivorship at pH 4.4 to 8.5 [79]. At extreme pH values of 4.0 and 10.0, *Cx. quinquefasciatus* had reduced developmental successes and adult biological fitness indices [28]. Its optimum range for development is between pH 5.0 and 8.0. From these studies, it seems that not all habitats in the wild supports development of mosquitoes, how-

In *Ae. aegypti,* percentage emergence reduced at pH 3.6 and 4.2 [78]. In *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* however, immature survivorship was highest between pH 5.0 and 8.0 and lowest at pH 10.0 [28]. According to the authors, male mosquitoes were most affected by the change in pH levels, and adult survivorship was, exceptionally, high between pH 5.0 to 8.0 and lowest at pH 4.0. Laboratory investigations have revealed larval-age-related increase in reserve accumulation in *Cx. quinquefasciatus* at different water pH level. Rate of mobilisation and accumulation of metabolic reserve components were reduced at extreme water pH conditions and highest at

Water hardness levels also play epidemiological roles in regulating the occurrence and distribution of mosquito species. It also determines the quality of mosquito larval habitat [80]. Mostly, the hardness of water is determined by the nature of the topsoil and the presence or absence of divalent cations of calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), ferrous iron (Fe2+) and manganese (Mn2+) ions [81]. Ample evidence has been shown that these ions play protective, metabolic, structural,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

and *An. dirus* and *An. sawadwongporni* [51].

will significantly reduce fitness of this vector.

ever, those that do, might actually reduce biological fitness.

and *Cx. quinquefasciatus* [52].

**6.2 Water pH**

*Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

Wing lengths reduce with increase in temperature. This is, however, speciesspecific. In *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* temperatures above 30°C reduced ptero-fitness [48]. Other researchers have reported similar temperature-dependent variation in adult wing lengths in *An. merus* [68], *An. quadrimaculatus* [50], *Cx. apicinus* [67] and *An. dirus* and *An. sawadwongporni* [51].

Body parts of immature mosquitoes are also affected by water temperature change. Higher water temperatures reduced larval body length, width, and volume and pupal cephalothoracic length in *Cx. pipiens* mosquitoes [40], *An. merus* [68], and *Cx. quinquefasciatus* [52].

There are scanty published data on the influence of temperature on metabolic reserves in mosquitoes. In *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* mosquitoes reared at 34°C had the lowest of all metabolic reserves, while higher reserves were recorded at 30°C [49]. Therefore, for this species, biological fitness of this species is enhanced at 30°C. Therefore, techniques designed to increase developmental temperature above this, will significantly reduce fitness of this vector.

#### **6.2 Water pH**

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

As cold-blooded organisms, mosquitoes rely on environmental temperature for all metabolic life processes. Literature on influence of temperature on mosquitoes abounds, however, an attempt will be made to summarise these for the sake of this chapter. Temperature zones of the world have been broadly categorised into Tropical/Sub-tropical and Temperate climates. Tropical and sub-tropical climates have relatively high temperatures, while temperate climates have colder to freezing temperatures. The response of mosquitoes from these climes to temperature are different, hence, predictions on development and biology based on prevailing temperatures would be also different [46, 47]. In the tropics and sub-tropics, with all-year-round favourable developmental temperatures, the influence of temperature is extremely strong. Apart from facilitating all year proliferation of mosquitoes, these temperatures also favour development of parasites within the vectors. In temperate climes, however, where extremely cold to freezing temperatures abound, mosquito development is often slow, and at times, halted during adverse weather conditions.

Information on the influence of temperature on fitness indices at both immature and adult life stages can be employed in developing novel control strategies. Temperature change during development in mosquitoes produce different phenotypes [48–52], endowed with different genotypes. Future genetic studies can be

Mosquitoes are adapted to surviving and reproducing at specific temperature ranges and, thus, have different thermal limits. Temperatures outside these limits lead to disruption of biological processes, or often death. Exposure to high temperatures result in denaturing of proteins, alteration of cell membranes, enzyme structures and properties, pH and ion concentrations, destroying wax complex of the cuticle,

Genera and species differential responses to lethal temperatures at given time ranges have been reported. Ambient temperature affects mosquito proliferation [54, 55]. Colder temperatures delay embryo eclosion, reduce hatch rate [56], and developmental rate [57]. While higher temperatures elicit faster pupation [58–60],

Olayemi *et al.* [48] reported shorter duration of development in *Cx. quinquefasciatus* mosquito*,* with increase in temperature: taking as low as 6 days at 34°C*.* This was, however, accompanied by reduced immature survivorship at temperatures above 30°C for the species. Ukubuiwe *et al.* [49] reported a linear relationship between temperature increase and growth rates and duration of development in *Cx. quinquefasciatus* and a negative relationship between temperature and immature life stages' survivorship*.* Similar observations have been recorded for *An. gambiae* [57],

Although high temperatures are associated with faster development, several studies have observed significant reduction in the number of adults at emergence and longevity (with increasing temperature) in mosquitoes such as *Cx. tarsalis* [65], *An. gambiae* [62], *An. sergentii* [66], *Ae. albopictus* [61] and *Cx. quinquefasciatus* [49]*.* Altering developmental temperature above the upper thermal limit will, therefore, increase immature life stage mortality, reduced adult emergence and human-vector contacts. Temperature change also affect post-emergence longevity in mosquitoes. Adult *Cx. quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes lived the longest at 30°C, whereas, at 34°C, longevity was significantly reduced [49]. High temperatures reduce adult daily survivorship in *Cx. apicinus* and *Cx. hepperi* [67]. In *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* female mosquitoes survived more than the male species at all temperatures

These also affect the development of pathogen in the vectors [17].

**6.1 Water temperature**

based on these phenotypes.

leading and desiccation due to evaporation [53].

reduced ecdysis [61] and longevity [62].

*Ae. krombeini* [63], and *Cx. tarsalis* [64].

**158**

investigated [49].

Another important immature breeding factor is water pH. Level of water pH level depends on its carbonic acid equilibrium. Just as for temperature, there are permissible tolerance limits for most aquatic organism, including mosquitoes. Outside these limits, developmental processes and normal physiology are affected [69–71]. Water pH is affects availability of essential mineral and food elements for development of mosquitoes, thereby, distribution [72], and survivorship of mosquitoes [73]. Field studies have reported strong positive correlation between pH and the quality of mosquito habitats [72, 74]. Studies have also shown that mosquito larvae adapt to and tolerate fluctuations in ionic levels in these habitats [75–77].

Even though water pH regulates growth in mosquito species, adaptation has been reported in some vector species. For Aedine mosquitoes, species-specific tolerance ranges have been reported [74, 78]. *Culex pipiens* showed limited survivorship at pH 4.4 to 8.5 [79]. At extreme pH values of 4.0 and 10.0, *Cx. quinquefasciatus* had reduced developmental successes and adult biological fitness indices [28]. Its optimum range for development is between pH 5.0 and 8.0. From these studies, it seems that not all habitats in the wild supports development of mosquitoes, however, those that do, might actually reduce biological fitness.

In *Ae. aegypti,* percentage emergence reduced at pH 3.6 and 4.2 [78]. In *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* however, immature survivorship was highest between pH 5.0 and 8.0 and lowest at pH 10.0 [28]. According to the authors, male mosquitoes were most affected by the change in pH levels, and adult survivorship was, exceptionally, high between pH 5.0 to 8.0 and lowest at pH 4.0. Laboratory investigations have revealed larval-age-related increase in reserve accumulation in *Cx. quinquefasciatus* at different water pH level. Rate of mobilisation and accumulation of metabolic reserve components were reduced at extreme water pH conditions and highest at pH 7.0 [28].

#### **6.3 Water hardness**

Water hardness levels also play epidemiological roles in regulating the occurrence and distribution of mosquito species. It also determines the quality of mosquito larval habitat [80]. Mostly, the hardness of water is determined by the nature of the topsoil and the presence or absence of divalent cations of calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), ferrous iron (Fe2+) and manganese (Mn2+) ions [81]. Ample evidence has been shown that these ions play protective, metabolic, structural,

and physiologic roles in aquatic organisms [82, 83]. Water hardness levels have been categorised into 'soft', 'slightly hard', 'moderately hard', 'hard' and 'very hard' water with calcium trioxocarbonate (CaCO3) content, respectively, less than 17.0, 17.0–59.0, 60.0–119.0, 120.0–180.0, and greater than 180 mg/L [84].

Despite the importance of water-hardness-causing ions, mosquitoes perform optimally within set limits [40]. Outside these limits, their occurrence, distribution, physiology, growth and development will be greatly affected. Calcium ions, for example, in excess elicit environmental stress conditions and affect feeding rates of aquatic organisms [85]. Impaired feed intake affects the amount of energy readily available for normal activities of the organisms, and mobilisation from one stage of life to the other [86, 87].

The effects of water hardness on mosquito bionomics have mostly been extrapolated from field data. Field data have suggested that 'moderately' and 'hard' water support mosquito growth [88–93]. Species-specific data on the influence of water hardness is important in elucidating actual contributions to mosquito growth. Hence, Ukubuiwe *et al.* [28, 94] and Aminuwa *et al.* [95] reported the influence of water hardness level on development and morphometric of *Cx. quinquefasciatus*. These authors reported reduced immature developmental successes and adult biological fitness indices of the species at hardness levels ≥150 mg/L CaCO3 (i.e., above 'hard' water). Duration of development of the species was fastest in 'soft' water, but longest in 'very hard' water [28, 95]. Larval growth rates were also highest in 'moderately hard' water but lowest in 'very hard' water [28]. This suggests growth-regulating effect of water hardness on the species, especially when in high quantities.

Further, first instar larvae of *Cx. quinquefasciatus* were most affected by water hardness level change, while immature survivorship of the species was lowest in 'very hard' water. Adult survivorship of *Cx. quinquefasciatus* were highest in 'moderately hard' water CaCO3 [28]. This study explained the relatively poor productive of habitats with high water 'hardness' content [80] and absence of species in some habitats with 'very hard water' (personal field observations). 'Very hard' water conditions produced very small-sized *Cx. quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes (across all life stages). Wing-based fitness indices for the species were lowest in 'very hard' water [94]). The author concluded that moderately hard water conditions are the best for overall fitness and performance of the species.

Information on the influence of water hardness conditions on metabolic reserves of mosquitoes is also scanty. However, laboratory investigations suggest that as water hardness level increased, mobilisation and utilisation of reserve components increased, resulting in depletion of adult life stage values [28]. These findings have epidemiological implications on population density and degree of human-mosquito contacts for disease pathogens transmission. Therefore, protocols involved in changing hardness levels of mosquito habitats will produce less biologically fit mosquitoes, thereby reducing scourge of the diseases transmitted by these vectors.

#### **6.4 Light duration (photoperiod)**

Photoperiod regulates most physiological processes in insects, including growth, diapause and longevity [96–98]. Many insects respond differently to length of day (photoperiod) and depend on it as cue to seasonal development [99–103]. Some insect species develop faster under short day-length, while in others, development is almost halted, and for a few, the insects were indifferent to variation in the daylength [104]. Different mosquito phenotypes are produced on exposure to different photoperiod regimens. Such information could be harnessed for producing smallsized, biologically less fit mosquitoes.

**161**

odic conditions.

photoperiodic regimens are also advocated.

**6.5 Larval density/overcrowding**

vector control programs.

*Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control*

[110], short day-lengths has been associated with higher survivorship.

An avalanche of literature exists on the influence of photoperiod on bionomic of mosquitoes. In *Cx. pipiens,* short photoperiodic conditions cause the development of smaller ovarian follicles [105]. These also increase the lifespan in *An. quadrimaculatus* [106], wing length, areas, body weight and greater wing area per unit body weight in *Cx. pipiens pipiens* [107]. In *Toxorhynchites rutilus,* long day-lengths promotes rapid growth and metamorphosis, while short days retards development [108]. In *Wyeomyia smithii* [99], *An. quadrimaculatus* [106, 109], and *An. crucians*

In an extensive study on influence of photoperiod on indices of fitness in *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* Ukubuiwe *et al.* [111] reported shorter durations of development, and higher numbers of adult emergence at short light durations. Exposure of larvae of *Cx. quinquefasciatus* to longer photophase produced phenotypes with shorter wing length and higher fluctuating asymmetry [111]; representing possible developmental stress. Metabolic reserves of the species were also affected by photoperiod conditions; larvae reared at short photoperiods had the highest biomass accumulation. Longer light duration reduced life stages' metabolic reserves and their caloric indices. Larvae of the species reared at longer photo-phase required relatively more metabolic components for pupation and pupal eclosion than those reared in shorter day lengths [112]. Based on the above-mentioned positive influence of short day-lengths on larval and adult fitness indices, it can be concluded that mosquitoes from shorter photophase may prove to be better vectors than those from longer photophase. As these spent the shortest time for development, survived most, were bigger, and accumulated more metabolic reserve than those from longer photoperi-

The knowledge and information generated from studies on the effects of photoperiod on vector biology can be incorporated in control strategies that may either retard or slow down the developmental processes or produce less fit adults. Further laboratory studies on vector competence of mosquito species exposed to various

Larval density, described as the number of mosquito per unit, has profound effects on the life cycle of mosquitoes. Most field surveillance of vector species incorporates larval density, often expressed as number of larvae per dip, during larval sampling [113]. Measuring larval density in this regards is generally employed during pre-and post-intervention procedures. The data generated from these exercise tell little or nothing about the contribution of overcrowding to biological fitness of mosquitoes. Through laboratory studies, however, remarkable influence of larval density on various immature and adult life attributes have been elucidiated. Such information though laboratory-based, reveals the contribution of larval density and its possible inclusion in developing novel control strategies. Such information will also assist in making informed decisions and the deployment of scarce resources in

High larval density has been associated with various degrees of competitions [114, 115], resulting in phenotypic plasticity in *An. arabiensis* and *An. gambiae* [116] and *Cx. quinquefasciatus* [117]*.* High larval densities also affect the following indices of biological fitness; immature and adult survivorship, population quality,

High larval density negatively affects the size and quality of adult *An. gambiae* mosquitoes [121]. According to Ye-Ebiyo *et al.* [122], overcrowded larvae of *An. arabiensis* are often smaller and short-lived as adults. More so, increased larval density has also been linked to sex-specific reactions such as parasite infection [123] and

eclosion rates [118], sex ratio [119], and vector competence [120].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

#### *Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

and physiologic roles in aquatic organisms [82, 83]. Water hardness levels have been categorised into 'soft', 'slightly hard', 'moderately hard', 'hard' and 'very hard' water with calcium trioxocarbonate (CaCO3) content, respectively, less than 17.0,

Despite the importance of water-hardness-causing ions, mosquitoes perform optimally within set limits [40]. Outside these limits, their occurrence, distribution, physiology, growth and development will be greatly affected. Calcium ions, for example, in excess elicit environmental stress conditions and affect feeding rates of aquatic organisms [85]. Impaired feed intake affects the amount of energy readily available for normal activities of the organisms, and mobilisation from one stage of

The effects of water hardness on mosquito bionomics have mostly been extrapolated from field data. Field data have suggested that 'moderately' and 'hard' water support mosquito growth [88–93]. Species-specific data on the influence of water hardness is important in elucidating actual contributions to mosquito growth. Hence, Ukubuiwe *et al.* [28, 94] and Aminuwa *et al.* [95] reported the influence of water hardness level on development and morphometric of *Cx. quinquefasciatus*. These authors reported reduced immature developmental successes and adult biological fitness indices of the species at hardness levels ≥150 mg/L CaCO3 (i.e., above 'hard' water). Duration of development of the species was fastest in 'soft' water, but longest in 'very hard' water [28, 95]. Larval growth rates were also highest in 'moderately hard' water but lowest in 'very hard' water [28]. This suggests growth-regulating effect of water hardness on the species, especially when in high

Further, first instar larvae of *Cx. quinquefasciatus* were most affected by water hardness level change, while immature survivorship of the species was lowest in 'very hard' water. Adult survivorship of *Cx. quinquefasciatus* were highest in 'moderately hard' water CaCO3 [28]. This study explained the relatively poor productive of habitats with high water 'hardness' content [80] and absence of species in some habitats with 'very hard water' (personal field observations). 'Very hard' water conditions produced very small-sized *Cx. quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes (across all life stages). Wing-based fitness indices for the species were lowest in 'very hard' water [94]). The author concluded that moderately hard water conditions are the

Information on the influence of water hardness conditions on metabolic reserves

Photoperiod regulates most physiological processes in insects, including growth, diapause and longevity [96–98]. Many insects respond differently to length of day (photoperiod) and depend on it as cue to seasonal development [99–103]. Some insect species develop faster under short day-length, while in others, development is almost halted, and for a few, the insects were indifferent to variation in the daylength [104]. Different mosquito phenotypes are produced on exposure to different photoperiod regimens. Such information could be harnessed for producing small-

of mosquitoes is also scanty. However, laboratory investigations suggest that as water hardness level increased, mobilisation and utilisation of reserve components increased, resulting in depletion of adult life stage values [28]. These findings have epidemiological implications on population density and degree of human-mosquito contacts for disease pathogens transmission. Therefore, protocols involved in changing hardness levels of mosquito habitats will produce less biologically fit mosquitoes, thereby reducing scourge of the diseases transmitted by these vectors.

best for overall fitness and performance of the species.

**6.4 Light duration (photoperiod)**

sized, biologically less fit mosquitoes.

17.0–59.0, 60.0–119.0, 120.0–180.0, and greater than 180 mg/L [84].

life to the other [86, 87].

quantities.

**160**

An avalanche of literature exists on the influence of photoperiod on bionomic of mosquitoes. In *Cx. pipiens,* short photoperiodic conditions cause the development of smaller ovarian follicles [105]. These also increase the lifespan in *An. quadrimaculatus* [106], wing length, areas, body weight and greater wing area per unit body weight in *Cx. pipiens pipiens* [107]. In *Toxorhynchites rutilus,* long day-lengths promotes rapid growth and metamorphosis, while short days retards development [108]. In *Wyeomyia smithii* [99], *An. quadrimaculatus* [106, 109], and *An. crucians* [110], short day-lengths has been associated with higher survivorship.

In an extensive study on influence of photoperiod on indices of fitness in *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* Ukubuiwe *et al.* [111] reported shorter durations of development, and higher numbers of adult emergence at short light durations. Exposure of larvae of *Cx. quinquefasciatus* to longer photophase produced phenotypes with shorter wing length and higher fluctuating asymmetry [111]; representing possible developmental stress. Metabolic reserves of the species were also affected by photoperiod conditions; larvae reared at short photoperiods had the highest biomass accumulation. Longer light duration reduced life stages' metabolic reserves and their caloric indices. Larvae of the species reared at longer photo-phase required relatively more metabolic components for pupation and pupal eclosion than those reared in shorter day lengths [112]. Based on the above-mentioned positive influence of short day-lengths on larval and adult fitness indices, it can be concluded that mosquitoes from shorter photophase may prove to be better vectors than those from longer photophase. As these spent the shortest time for development, survived most, were bigger, and accumulated more metabolic reserve than those from longer photoperiodic conditions.

The knowledge and information generated from studies on the effects of photoperiod on vector biology can be incorporated in control strategies that may either retard or slow down the developmental processes or produce less fit adults. Further laboratory studies on vector competence of mosquito species exposed to various photoperiodic regimens are also advocated.

#### **6.5 Larval density/overcrowding**

Larval density, described as the number of mosquito per unit, has profound effects on the life cycle of mosquitoes. Most field surveillance of vector species incorporates larval density, often expressed as number of larvae per dip, during larval sampling [113]. Measuring larval density in this regards is generally employed during pre-and post-intervention procedures. The data generated from these exercise tell little or nothing about the contribution of overcrowding to biological fitness of mosquitoes. Through laboratory studies, however, remarkable influence of larval density on various immature and adult life attributes have been elucidiated. Such information though laboratory-based, reveals the contribution of larval density and its possible inclusion in developing novel control strategies. Such information will also assist in making informed decisions and the deployment of scarce resources in vector control programs.

High larval density has been associated with various degrees of competitions [114, 115], resulting in phenotypic plasticity in *An. arabiensis* and *An. gambiae* [116] and *Cx. quinquefasciatus* [117]*.* High larval densities also affect the following indices of biological fitness; immature and adult survivorship, population quality, eclosion rates [118], sex ratio [119], and vector competence [120].

High larval density negatively affects the size and quality of adult *An. gambiae* mosquitoes [121]. According to Ye-Ebiyo *et al.* [122], overcrowded larvae of *An. arabiensis* are often smaller and short-lived as adults. More so, increased larval density has also been linked to sex-specific reactions such as parasite infection [123] and

larval mortality in *An. stephensi* [124] and *Ae. aegypti* [125]. Overcrowding conditions increase larval development times [121], but reduce the size of the mature larva, pupa and resulting adult [126], with its attendant effects on the fecundity of females [127].

In *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* fourth larval instars were most affected by increasing larval density, and resulted in reduced rate of larval growth and immature life survivorship of the species [126]. These authors opined that high larval densities induce stress and reduced feed intake due to competition, with reduction in metabolic reserves. A similar reduction in growth rates have been reported in *Ae. albifasciatus* [128] and *Ae. aegypti* [129].

Although, in nature, gravid mosquitoes tend to avoid ovipositing in habitats that will pose serious developmental tasks on the young larvae as is seen in *An. gambiae* [121]; these laboratory studies explain what might happen when several mosquito species oviposit in habitats, with initial favourable growth factors, which gets exhausted over time.

High larval density significantly affects emergence success, adult survivorship, and longevity in most mosquito vectors: *An. stephensi* [124], *Ae. sierrensis* [130], *Ae. albopictus* [131] and *Ae. aegypti* [132], *Cx. quinquefasciatus* [126, 133], *Cx. pipiens fatigans* [134, 135], *Cx. tarsalis* [136]*,* and *Wyeomyia smithii* [137]. High density also reduce female fecundity in *Ae. aegypti* [125, 138] and *An. gambiae* s.s [131, 139]. Similarly, negative effects of high density have also been reported in *Ae. aegypti, Cx. pipiens, An. albimanus*, and *An. gambiae* [118], and *Cx. sitiens* [140]. Further, during metamorphosis *Cx. quinquefasciatus* larvae in crowded environments expended more energy for pupation and eclosion. The reason for this is not clear but will lead to depleted energy reserves for adult's life attributes [126].

These observations may imply that higher mosquito larval densities of may not necessarily suggest potential health threat as often reported; as such mosquitoes would have undergone developmental stress, which affects post-immature life traits. Based on the above-mentioned studies, these mosquitoes manifested evidence of developmental stress, such as high fluctuating asymmetry, hence, may be 'bad' fliers, unable to secure mate and forage. More so, these mosquitoes may not live long enough to transmit pathogens, and may not have adequate energetic budgets for intra-vectoral pathogen development as greater energy reserves have been expended for metamorphosis, coupled with low adult survivorship and reduced longevity. Though there are no documented evidence on these submissions, further studies are advocated. However, if the above scenario permits in the wild, it may be nature's way of regulating mosquito population explosion, among others.

#### **7. Prospects**

Despite the laboratory evidence from the study of abiotic factors on developmental and adult fitness indices, further studies, either semi-field or field experiments to concretise these observations to enable full integration into control protocol. More so, for effective incorporation of these protocols, the following are gaps of knowledge to be filled.

#### • **Genetic bases of vector-abiotic factors interaction**

Phenotypic expressions usually have genetic undertones. Genetic studies to decipher the genetic bases of the phenotypes observed in the studies above are highly recommended. The information generated will be useful in genetic manipulations to produce less fit (selective disadvantaged) mosquitoes.

**163**

*Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control*

Dissolved oxygen, should also be investigated.

sustainability of the protocols when developed.

vector population explosion and disease transmission.

especially in high risks area for maximising control costs.

• **Developing Predictive Modelling**

The influence of other abiotic factors such as sulphate, nitrate, alkalinity,

The studies highlighted above did not elucidate the influence of the abiotic factors on the ability of the mosquitoes to develop and transmit disease pathogen. Even though vector competence in mosquitoes has been inferred from the results, further investigated on this is key is understanding the aspect

There is also a need to conduct scientific studies on the reproductive perfor-

Most of the studies reviewed in this chapter ended with the parent stock. No scientific report exists for the influence on the progenies. It would be meaningful to study the effects of the factors on the development and adult fitness indices of subsequent generations. This will provide information on the

Predictive models will assist in developing protocols to forecast influence of prevailing environmental factors on the biological fitness of mosquitoes,

Single vector control approach such as insecticide application has failed to curb the spread of mosquito borne disease and has necessitated development of other techniques such environmental manipulation. Focusing on changing the quality of mosquito breeding habitats to produce less biologically fit adults, in capable of transmitting disease pathogen, environmental manipulation is promising to curb

For effective implementation of environmental manipulation for mosquito vector control, field and semi-field trials of the influence of these critical abiotic factors should be considered. Genetic studies on bases of vector-abiotic factors interactions should be investigated. Other abiotic factors, other than those mentioned in this chapter should be studied. Influence of various abiotic factors on mosquito vector competence and reproductive performance should be explored. The effects of these critical abiotic factors on future generations of parent stocks should also be investigated. Finally, with the information generated, predictive models can be developed.

mance of females from the regimens of the factors investigated.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

• **Other Abiotic factor**

• **Vector competence**

of vectors' physiology.

• **Generational effects**

**8. Conclusion**

**9. Recommendation**

• **Reproductive performance**

*Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

#### • **Other Abiotic factor**

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

larval mortality in *An. stephensi* [124] and *Ae. aegypti* [125]. Overcrowding conditions increase larval development times [121], but reduce the size of the mature larva, pupa and resulting adult [126], with its attendant effects on the fecundity of

In *Cx. quinquefasciatus,* fourth larval instars were most affected by increasing larval density, and resulted in reduced rate of larval growth and immature life survivorship of the species [126]. These authors opined that high larval densities induce stress and reduced feed intake due to competition, with reduction in metabolic reserves. A similar reduction in growth rates have been reported in *Ae.* 

Although, in nature, gravid mosquitoes tend to avoid ovipositing in habitats that will pose serious developmental tasks on the young larvae as is seen in *An. gambiae* [121]; these laboratory studies explain what might happen when several mosquito species oviposit in habitats, with initial favourable growth factors, which gets

High larval density significantly affects emergence success, adult survivorship, and longevity in most mosquito vectors: *An. stephensi* [124], *Ae. sierrensis* [130], *Ae. albopictus* [131] and *Ae. aegypti* [132], *Cx. quinquefasciatus* [126, 133], *Cx. pipiens fatigans* [134, 135], *Cx. tarsalis* [136]*,* and *Wyeomyia smithii* [137]. High density also reduce female fecundity in *Ae. aegypti* [125, 138] and *An. gambiae* s.s [131, 139]. Similarly, negative effects of high density have also been reported in *Ae. aegypti, Cx. pipiens, An. albimanus*, and *An. gambiae* [118], and *Cx. sitiens* [140]. Further, during metamorphosis *Cx. quinquefasciatus* larvae in crowded environments expended more energy for pupation and eclosion. The reason for this is not clear but will lead

These observations may imply that higher mosquito larval densities of may not necessarily suggest potential health threat as often reported; as such mosquitoes would have undergone developmental stress, which affects post-immature life traits. Based on the above-mentioned studies, these mosquitoes manifested evidence of developmental stress, such as high fluctuating asymmetry, hence, may be 'bad' fliers, unable to secure mate and forage. More so, these mosquitoes may not live long enough to transmit pathogens, and may not have adequate energetic budgets for intra-vectoral pathogen development as greater energy reserves have been expended for metamorphosis, coupled with low adult survivorship and reduced longevity. Though there are no documented evidence on these submissions, further studies are advocated. However, if the above scenario permits in the wild, it may be

nature's way of regulating mosquito population explosion, among others.

• **Genetic bases of vector-abiotic factors interaction**

Despite the laboratory evidence from the study of abiotic factors on developmental and adult fitness indices, further studies, either semi-field or field experiments to concretise these observations to enable full integration into control protocol. More so, for effective incorporation of these protocols, the following are

Phenotypic expressions usually have genetic undertones. Genetic studies to decipher the genetic bases of the phenotypes observed in the studies above are highly recommended. The information generated will be useful in genetic manipulations to produce less fit (selective disadvantaged) mosquitoes.

**162**

**7. Prospects**

gaps of knowledge to be filled.

females [127].

exhausted over time.

*albifasciatus* [128] and *Ae. aegypti* [129].

to depleted energy reserves for adult's life attributes [126].

The influence of other abiotic factors such as sulphate, nitrate, alkalinity, Dissolved oxygen, should also be investigated.

#### • **Vector competence**

The studies highlighted above did not elucidate the influence of the abiotic factors on the ability of the mosquitoes to develop and transmit disease pathogen. Even though vector competence in mosquitoes has been inferred from the results, further investigated on this is key is understanding the aspect of vectors' physiology.

#### • **Reproductive performance**

There is also a need to conduct scientific studies on the reproductive performance of females from the regimens of the factors investigated.

#### • **Generational effects**

Most of the studies reviewed in this chapter ended with the parent stock. No scientific report exists for the influence on the progenies. It would be meaningful to study the effects of the factors on the development and adult fitness indices of subsequent generations. This will provide information on the sustainability of the protocols when developed.

#### • **Developing Predictive Modelling**

Predictive models will assist in developing protocols to forecast influence of prevailing environmental factors on the biological fitness of mosquitoes, especially in high risks area for maximising control costs.

#### **8. Conclusion**

Single vector control approach such as insecticide application has failed to curb the spread of mosquito borne disease and has necessitated development of other techniques such environmental manipulation. Focusing on changing the quality of mosquito breeding habitats to produce less biologically fit adults, in capable of transmitting disease pathogen, environmental manipulation is promising to curb vector population explosion and disease transmission.

#### **9. Recommendation**

For effective implementation of environmental manipulation for mosquito vector control, field and semi-field trials of the influence of these critical abiotic factors should be considered. Genetic studies on bases of vector-abiotic factors interactions should be investigated. Other abiotic factors, other than those mentioned in this chapter should be studied. Influence of various abiotic factors on mosquito vector competence and reproductive performance should be explored. The effects of these critical abiotic factors on future generations of parent stocks should also be investigated. Finally, with the information generated, predictive models can be developed.

### **Acknowledgements**

We wish to thank Miss Favour Ngoziala for typing the drafts of the manuscript. Most of the studies reported by the Author was sponsored by a grant from United State Agency for International Development (USAID), Higher Education Partnership/University of Mississippi (HEP/UM) (UM SUB-AWARD NO. 15-12-024).

### **Conflict of interests**

The authors declare no conflict of interests.

#### **Author details**

Ukubuiwe Azubuike Christian1 \*, Olayemi Israel Kayode1 , Ukubuiwe Catherine Chinenye2 and Ugbede Bright Sule1

1 Applied Entomology Unit, Department of Animal Biology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria

2 Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria

\*Address all correspondence to: a.ukubuiwe@futminna.edu.ng

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**165**

*Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control*

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2011-07-06.

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Sciences*.* 2009; 2 (1): 5-10.

2019. Geneva: World Health

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[14] Nwoke BEB, Dozie INS, Jiya J, Saka Y, Ogidi JA, Nuttal I. The

prevalence of hydrocele in Nigeria and its implication on mapping of lymphatic

[15] Terranella A, Eigege A, Jinadu MY, Miri E, Richards FO. Urban lymphatic filariasis in central Nigeria. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology.

[16] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, CDC. Malaria: Malaria Transmission in the United States. 2020.

Centers for Disease Control and

[17] European Centre for Disease

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Organization; 2020b

2006;100(1):1-10.

Prevention. 2020.

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[3] Gyapong M, Gyapong JO, Adjei S, Vlassof C, Weiss M. Filariasis in Northern Ghana: Some cultural beliefs and practices and their implications for disease control. Social Science and

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We wish to thank Miss Favour Ngoziala for typing the drafts of the manuscript. Most of the studies reported by the Author was sponsored by a grant from United State Agency for International Development (USAID), Higher Education Partnership/University of Mississippi (HEP/UM) (UM SUB-AWARD NO.

\*, Olayemi Israel Kayode1

and Ugbede Bright Sule1

1 Applied Entomology Unit, Department of Animal Biology, Federal University of

2 Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

\*Address all correspondence to: a.ukubuiwe@futminna.edu.ng

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**Author details**

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**Conflict of interests**

The authors declare no conflict of interests.

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Ukubuiwe Azubuike Christian1

Ukubuiwe Catherine Chinenye2

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[58] Rueda LM, Patel KJ, Axtell RC, Stinner RE. Temperature-dependent development and survival rates of *Culex quinquefasciatus* and *Aedes aegypti* (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Medical Entomology*.* 1990;27:892-898.

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[73] Yee DA, Kneitel JM, Juliano SA. Environmental Correlates of

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[74] Clark TM, Flis BJ, Remold SK. pH tolerances and regulatory abilities of freshwater and euryhaline Aedine mosquito larvae. The Journal of Experimental Biology. 2004;207:

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Physiology*.* 2001;47:495-507.

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[64] Dodson BL, Kramer LD, Rasgon JL. Effects of larval rearing temperature on immature development and West Nile Virus vector competence of *Culex tarsalis*. Parasites and Vectors.

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Climate change and future populations at risk of malaria. Global Environmental

[56] De Carvalho SC, Martins-Junior AJ, Lima JB, Valle D. Temperature influence on embryonic development of *Anopheles albitarsis* and *Anopheles aquasalis*. MemÛrias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz.

[57] Bayoh MN, Lindsay SW. Effect of temperature on the development of the aquatic stages of *Anopheles gambiae* sensu stricto (Diptera: Culicidae). Bulletin of Entomology Research*.*

[58] Rueda LM, Patel KJ, Axtell RC, Stinner RE. Temperature-dependent development and survival rates of *Culex quinquefasciatus* and *Aedes aegypti* (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Medical

Entomology*.* 1990;27:892-898.

Zoologica*.* 2004;94 :177-180.

[60] Loetti MV, Nora EB, Paula P, Schweigmann N. Effect of temperature on the development time and survival of preimaginal *Culex hepperi* (Diptera: Culicidae). Revolutionary Society of Entomology. 2008; 67 (3-4):79-85.

[61] Alto BW, Juliano SA. Temperature effects on the dynamics of *Aedes albopictus* (Diptera: Culicidae)

populations in the laboratory. Journal of Medical Entomology. 2001;38:548-556.

[62] Afrane YA, Zhou G, Lawson BW, Githeko AK, Yan G. Effects of microclimatic changes caused by

[59] Ribeiro PB, Costa PRP, Loeck AE, Vianna EES, Silveira Jr P. Exigências térmicas de *Culex quinquefasciatus* (Diptera, Culicidae) em Pelotas, Rio Grande do Sul, Brasil. Iheringia, Série

Change*.* 1999 ; 9:89-107

London, 2000; 675.

2002; 97:1117-1120.

2003;93:375-381.

[55] Clements AN. *The Biology of Mosquitoes: Development, Nutrition and Reproduction.* Chapman & Hall,

2016;6(14): 1-7 (doi: 10.5376/

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[51] Phasomkusolsil S, Lerdthusnee K,

Pantuwatana K, Murphy JR. Effect of temperature on laboratory reared *Anopheles dirus* Peyton and Harrison and *Anopheles sawadwongporni* Rattanarithikul and Green. Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health*.* 2011; 42(1):63-70.

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*quinquefasciatus* (Diptera: Culicidae) Mosquito. Asian Journal of Biological Sciences. 2019;12(3):533-542. Doi:

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[64] Dodson BL, Kramer LD, Rasgon JL. Effects of larval rearing temperature on immature development and West Nile Virus vector competence of *Culex tarsalis*. Parasites and Vectors. 2012; 5:199

[65] Reisen WK. Effect of temperature on *Culex tarsalis* (Diptera: Culicidae) from the Coachella and San Joaquin Valleys of California. Journal of Medical Entomology. 1995; 32:636-645.

[66] Beier MS, Beier JC, Merdan AA, el Sawaf BM, Kadder MA. Laboratory rearing techniques and adult life table parameters for *Anopheles sergentii* from Egypt. Journal of American Mosquito Control Association. 1987;3:266-270.

[67] Loetti MV, Burroni NE, Schweigmann N, de Garin A. Effect of different thermal conditions on the pre-imaginal biology of *Culex apicinus* (Philippi, 1865) (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Vector Ecology*.* 2007;32: 106.

[68] Le Sueur D, Sharp BL. Temperaturedependent variation in *Anopheles merus* larval head capsule width and adult wing length: implications for anopheline taxonomy. Medical and Veterinary Entomology*.* 1991; 5:55-62.

[69] Patrick ML, Ferreira RL, Gonzalez RJ, Wood CM, Wilson RW, Bradley TJ, Val AL. Ion regulatory patterns of mosquito larvae collected from breeding sites in the Amazon rain forest. Physiology, Biochemistry and Zoology*.* 2002; 75: 215-222.

[70] Gillott C. *Entomology*. 3rd Ed. Springer publishing. 2005; 500-511.

[71] Patrick ML, Gonzalez RJ, Wood CM, Wilson RW, Bradley TJ, Val AL. The characterization of ion regulation in Amazonian mosquito larvae: Evidence of phenotypic plasticity, population based disparity, and novel mechanisms of ion uptake. Physiology, Biochemistry and Zoology*.* 2002; 75: 223-236.

[72] Minakawa N, Sonye G, Yan G. Relationships between occurrence of *Anopheles gambiae* s. l. (Diptera: Culicidae) and size and stability of larval habitats. Journal of Medical Entomology. 2005;42 (3): 295-300.

[73] Yee DA, Kneitel JM, Juliano SA. Environmental Correlates of Abundances of Mosquito Species and Stages in Discarded Vehicle Tires. Journal of Medical Entomology. 2010;47(1): 53-62.

[74] Clark TM, Flis BJ, Remold SK. pH tolerances and regulatory abilities of freshwater and euryhaline Aedine mosquito larvae. The Journal of Experimental Biology. 2004;207: 2297-2304.

[75] Locke M. The Wigglesworth lecture: Insects for studying fundamental problems in biology. Journal of Insect Physiology*.* 2001;47:495-507.

[76] Nadia K, Thamer M, Saad SA. The Effect of Different NaCl, pH level of Survival of *Culex* species (Diptera: Culicidae) Larvae in Basrah. Journal of Basrah Research (Science)*.* 2005;3(2): 31-36.

[77] Singare PU, Lokhande RS, Pathak PP. Soil pollution along Kalwa Bridge at Thane Creek of Maharashtra, India. Journal of Environmental Protection*.* 2010;1:121-128.

[78] Woodhill AR. A comparison of factors affecting the development of three species of mosquitoes, etc. Proceedings of Limnological Society. N. S. W. 1942; 67:95-97.

[79] Buchman NW. Untersuchungenti ber die Bedeutungd er Wasserst offionenkonzentration fur die Entwicklung der Mtickenlarven. 2. Angew. Entomology*.* 1931;18:404-416.

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[83] Blanksma CB, Eguia KL, Lazorchak JM, Smith ME, Wratschko M, Schoenfuss HL. Effects of water Hardness on Skeletal Development and Growth in Juvenile fathead minnows*.* Aquaculture. 2009; 286;226-232.

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[86] Day JF, Van-Handel E. Differences between the nutritional reserves of laboratory-maintained and fieldcollected adult mosquitoes. Journal of

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[89] Piyaratne MK, Amerasinghe FP, Amerasinghe PH, Konradsen F. Physico – chemical characteristics of *Anopheles culicifacies* and *Anopheles varuna* breeding water in a dry zone stream in Sri Lanka*.* Journal of Vector Borne Diseases. 2005;42;61 – 67.

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[103] MacRae TH. Gene expression, metabolic regulation and stress

tolerance during diapause. Cellular and

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sp. Nr. *Lyncus* (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), An Ectoparasitoid of *Phyllocnistis citrella* (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae). Florida Entomologist*.*

[105] Oda T, Nuorteva, P. Autumnal photoperiod and the development of follicles in *Culex pipiens pipiens* L. (Diptera, Culicidae) in Finland. Annals of Entomology Fennici. 1987; 53:33-35.

[106] Lanciani CA, Anderson JF. Effect of photoperiod on longevity and metabolic rate in *Anopheles* 

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[107] Vinogradova EB, Karpova SG. Effect of photoperiod and temperature on the autogeny rate, fecundity and wing length in the urban mosquito, *Culex pipiens pipiens f. molestus* (Diptera, Culicidae). International Journal of Dipteran Research. 2006;17

[108] Bradshaw WE, Holzapfel CM. Biology of tree-hole mosquitoes:

2001;84(2);305-307.

1993;9:158-163.

(1):3-12.

1964;98(902):357-374.

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[94] Ukubuiwe AC, Olayemi IK,

Omalu ICJ, Arimoro FO, Ukubuiwe CC. Morphometric Diagnosis of the Effects of Water Hardness on Development of Immature Life Stages and Adult Vectorial Fitness of *Culex* 

*quinquefasciatus* (Diptera: Culicidae) Mosquito. Zoomorphology. 2018;137(4):

Odeyemi MO. Evaluation of Critical Larval Habitat Physico-chemical Factors on Embryonic Development and Adult Fitness of *Culex quinquefasciatus*

mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Malaya Journal of Bioscience*.* 2018;5(2): 48-56*.*

[97] MacRae TH. Diapause: diverse states of developmental and metabolic arrest.

[98] Cloutier EJ, Beck SD, McLeod DGR, Silhacek DL. Neural transplants and

[99] Mathias D, Laura KR, William EB, Holzapfel CM. Evolutionary Divergence

Photoperiodic control of development and reproduction in *Harmonia axyridis* (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). European

of Circadian and Photoperiodic Phenotypes in the Pitcher-Plant Mosquito, *Wyeomyia smithii.* Journal of Biological Rhythms. 2006;21(2):132-139.

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Journal of Biological Research.

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2005;3:3-14.

[96] Chocorosqui VR, Panizzi AR. Photoperiod influence on the Biology and phenological characteristics of *Dichelops melacanthus* (Dallas, 1851) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae)*,* Brazilian Journal of Biology*.* 2003;63(4):655-664.

511-518*.* https://doi.org/10.1007/

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2012;19(2):93-100.

s00435-018-0415-x

*Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

the Municipal Areas of Imo State, Nigeria. Analele UniversităŃii din Oradea - Fascicula Biologie. 2012;19(2):93-100.

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

American Mosquito Control Association. 1986; 2(2):154-157.

of Medical Entomology. 1990;27:839-850.

1996;33:30-40.

[87] Briegel H. Fecundity, metabolism, and body size in *Anopheles* (Diptera: Culicidae), vectors of malaria. Journal

[88] Kant R, Pandey SD, Sharma SK. Mosquito breeding in relation to aquatic vegetation and some physico-chemical parameters in rice fields of central Gujarat. Indian Journal of Malariology.

[89] Piyaratne MK, Amerasinghe FP, Amerasinghe PH, Konradsen F. Physico – chemical characteristics of *Anopheles culicifacies* and *Anopheles varuna* breeding water in a dry zone stream in Sri Lanka*.* Journal of Vector Borne

Diseases. 2005;42;61 – 67.

[90] Mwangangi JM, Mbogo CM, Muturi EJ, Nzovu JG, Kabiru EW, Githure JI, Novak RJ, Beier JC. Influence of biological and physicochemical characteristics of larval habitats on the

body size of *Anopheles gambiae*

[91] Oyewole IO, Momoh OO, Anyasor GN, Ogunnowo AA, Ibidapo CA, Oduola OA, Obansa JB, Awolola TS. Physico-chemical characteristics of *Anopheles* breeding sites: Impact on fecundity and progeny development. African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology*.*

2009;3(12):447-452.

[92] Olayemi IK, Omalu ICJ, Famotele OI, Shegna SP, Idris B. Distribution of mosquito larvae in relation to physico-chemical

in Infection. 2010;1(1): 49-53.

characteristics of breeding habitats in Minna, North Central Nigeria. Reviews

[93] Mgbemena IC, Ebe T. Distribution and Occurrence of Mosquito Species in

mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) along the Kenyan coast. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases*.* 2007;44:122-127.

three species of mosquitoes, etc.

S. W. 1942; 67:95-97.

Proceedings of Limnological Society. N.

[79] Buchman NW. Untersuchungenti ber die Bedeutungd er Wasserst offionenkonzentration fur die Entwicklung der Mtickenlarven. 2. Angew. Entomology*.* 1931;18:404-416.

[80] Robert V, Awono-Ambene HP, Thiolouse J. Ecology of larval Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) in market-garden wells in urban Dakar,

[81] World Health Organisation (1997). Guidelines for drinking water quality (2nd Edition). Volume 3. Surveillance and Control of community supplies.

[82] Molokwu CN, Okpokwasili GC. The

Wratschko M, Schoenfuss HL. Effects

Development and Growth in Juvenile fathead minnows*.* Aquaculture. 2009;

[84] Water Quality Association, WQA. Scale deposits are a typical indicator of hard water. www.wqa.org, 2018

[85] Poteat MD, Buchwalter DB. Calcium uptake in aquatic insects: influences of phylogeny and metals (Cd and Zn). The Journal of Experimental Biology*,* 2014;217:1180-1186 doi:10.1242/

[86] Day JF, Van-Handel E. Differences between the nutritional reserves of laboratory-maintained and fieldcollected adult mosquitoes. Journal of

Effect of Water hardness on Egg Hatchability and Larval Viability of *Clarias gariepinus*. Aquaculture International. 2004;10:57-64.

[83] Blanksma CB, Eguia KL, Lazorchak JM, Smith ME,

of water Hardness on Skeletal

(Accessed 14/01/2018)*.*

286;226-232.

jeb.097261

Senegal. Journal of Medical Entomology*.* 1998; 35(6):948-955.

Geneva, Switzerland.

**170**

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[95] Aminuwa H, Olayemi IK, Ukubuiwe AC, Adeniyi KA, Odeyemi MO. Evaluation of Critical Larval Habitat Physico-chemical Factors on Embryonic Development and Adult Fitness of *Culex quinquefasciatus* mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae). Malaya Journal of Bioscience*.* 2018;5(2): 48-56*.*

[96] Chocorosqui VR, Panizzi AR. Photoperiod influence on the Biology and phenological characteristics of *Dichelops melacanthus* (Dallas, 1851) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae)*,* Brazilian Journal of Biology*.* 2003;63(4):655-664.

[97] MacRae TH. Diapause: diverse states of developmental and metabolic arrest. Journal of Biological Research. 2005;3:3-14.

[98] Cloutier EJ, Beck SD, McLeod DGR, Silhacek DL. Neural transplants and insect diapause. Nature. 1962;135:1222-1224.

[99] Mathias D, Laura KR, William EB, Holzapfel CM. Evolutionary Divergence of Circadian and Photoperiodic Phenotypes in the Pitcher-Plant Mosquito, *Wyeomyia smithii.* Journal of Biological Rhythms. 2006;21(2):132-139.

[100] Reznik SY, Vaghina NP. Photoperiodic control of development and reproduction in *Harmonia axyridis* (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). European Journal of Entomology*.* 2011;108:385-390.

[101] Śniegula S, Nilsson-Örtman V, Johansson F. Growth Pattern Responses to Photoperiod across Latitudes in a Northern Damselfly. PLoS ONE*.* 2012; 7(9):e46024. doi: 10.1371/journal. pone.0046024

[102] Adkisson PL. Action of the Photoperiod in Controlling Insect Diapause. The American Naturalist. 1964;98(902):357-374.

[103] MacRae TH. Gene expression, metabolic regulation and stress tolerance during diapause. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences. 2010;67(14):2405-2424.

[104] Urbaneja A, Llacer E, Garrido A, Jacas J. Effect of variable photoperiod on development and Survival of *Cirrospilus* sp. Nr. *Lyncus* (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), An Ectoparasitoid of *Phyllocnistis citrella* (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae). Florida Entomologist*.* 2001;84(2);305-307.

[105] Oda T, Nuorteva, P. Autumnal photoperiod and the development of follicles in *Culex pipiens pipiens* L. (Diptera, Culicidae) in Finland. Annals of Entomology Fennici. 1987; 53:33-35.

[106] Lanciani CA, Anderson JF. Effect of photoperiod on longevity and metabolic rate in *Anopheles quadrimaculatus*. Journal of America Mosquito Control Association*.* 1993;9:158-163.

[107] Vinogradova EB, Karpova SG. Effect of photoperiod and temperature on the autogeny rate, fecundity and wing length in the urban mosquito, *Culex pipiens pipiens f. molestus* (Diptera, Culicidae). International Journal of Dipteran Research. 2006;17 (1):3-12.

[108] Bradshaw WE, Holzapfel CM. Biology of tree-hole mosquitoes:

photoperiodic control of development in northern *Toxorhynchites rutilus* (Coq.). Canadian Journal of Zoology*.* 1975;53:889-893.

[109] Carmine LA, Ronald E. Effect of Photoperiods on *Anopheles quadrimaculatus.* Florida Entomologist*.* 1993;76(4):622.

[110] Lanciani CA. Photoperiod and longevity in *Anopheles crucians*. Journal of America Mosquito Control Association, 1993;9:308-312.

[111] Ukubuiwe AC, Olayemi IK, Omalu ICJ, Arimoro FO, Baba BM, Ukubuiwe CC. Effects of Varying Photoperiodic Regimens on Critical Biological Fitness traits of *Culex quinquefasciatus* (Diptera: Culicidae) Mosquito Vector. International Journal of Insect Science*.* 2018;10: 1-10. 10:1179543318767915 (doi: 10.1177/1179543318767915)

[112] Ukubuiwe AC, Olayemi IK, Omalu ICJ, Arimoro FO, Baba BM, Ukubuiwe CC. Influence of Variable Photoperiod on Life-stages Mobilization of Teneral Reserves in *Culex quinquefasciatus* (Diptera: Culicidae): Implication for Environmental Manipulation for Vector Control. Molecular Entomology*.* 2018;9(1): 1-10 (doi: 10.5376/me.2018.09.0001)

[113] Jesha MM, Sebastian NM, Sheela PH, Mohamed IS, Manu AY. Mosquito Density in Urban Kerala: A Study to Calculate Larval Indices in Municipal Area of Perinthalmanna. Indian Journal of Forensic and Community Medicine. 2015;2(1):7-12.

[114] Tsurim I, Silberbush A, Ovadia O, Blaustein L, Margalith Y. Inter- and Intra-Specific Density-Dependent Effects on Life History and Development Strategies of Larval Mosquitoes. PlosOne. 2013;8:e57875.

[115] Silberbush A, Tsurim I, Rosen R, Margalith Y, Ovadia O. Species-Specific Non-Physical Interference Competition among Mosquito Larvae. PLoSONE. 2014;9(2):e88650. doi: 10.1371/journal. pone.008865.

[116] Schneider P, Takken W, McCall PJ. Interspecific competition between sibling species larvae of *Anopheles arabiensis* and *An. gambiae*. Medical and Veterinary Entomology*.* 2000; 14:165-170.

[117] Suleman M. The Effects of Intraspecific Competition for Food and Space on the Larval Development of *Culex quinquefasciatus*. Mosquito News*.* 1982;42:347-355.

[118] Timmermann SE, Briegel H. Water depth and larval density affect development and accumulation of reserves in laboratory populations of mosquitoes. Bulletin of the Society of Vector Ecology*.* 1993;18:174-187.

[119] Reisen WK, Emory RW. Intraspecific competition in *Anopheles stephensi* (Diptera Culicidae) II. The effects of more crowded densities and the addition of antibiotics. Canadian Entomology. 1977; 109:1475-1480.

[120] Okwa OO, Rasheed A, Adeyemi A, Omoyeni M, Oni L, Fayemi A, Ogunwomoju A. *Anopheles* species abundances, composition and vectorial competence in six areas of Lagos: Nigeria. Journal of Cell and Animal Biology*.* 2007;1(2):19-23

[121] Gimnig JE, Ombok M, Otieno S, Kaufman MG, Vulule JM, Walker ED. Density-dependent development of *Anopheles gambiae* (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae in artificial habitats. Journal of Medical Entomology*.* 2002;39:162-172.

[122] Ye-Ebiyo Y, Pollack RJ, Kiszewski A, Spielman A. Enhancement of development of larval *Anopheles arabiensis* by proximity to flowering maize (*Zea mays*) in turbid water and when crowded. American Journal of

**173**

*Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control*

epidemiological consequences. Journal of Animal Ecology*.* 1985;54:955-964.

Chambers GM. Effect of body size on host seeking and blood meal utilization in *Anopheles gambiae* sensu stricto (Diptera: Culicidae): the disadvantage of being small. Journal of Medical Entomology. 1998;35:639-645.

[131] Takken W, Klowden MJ,

[132] Macia´ A. Effects of larval

[133] Roberts D, Kokkinn M. Larval crowding effects on the mosquito *Culex quinquefasciatus*: physical or chemical? Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 2010; 135:271-275.

[134] Rajagopalan PK, Yasuno M,

Menon PK. Density effect on survival of immature stages of *Culex pipiens fatigans* in breeding sites in Delhi villages. The Indian Journal of Medical Research*.*

[135] Mori A. Effects of larval density and nutrition on some attribute of immature and adult *Ae. albopictus*. Tropical Medicine*.* 1979;21:85-103.

[136] Reisen WK, Milby MM, Bock ME. The effects of immature stress on selected events in the life history of *Culex tarsalis*. Mosquito News*.*

[137] Bradshaw WE, Holzapfel CM. Reproductive consequences of densitydependent size variation in the pitcher plant mosquito, *Wyeomyia smithii* (Diptera: Culicidae). Annals of Entomological Society of America*.*

[138] Barbosa P, Peters TM. Some effects of overcrowding on the respiration of larval *Aedes aegypti*. Entomologia

2009;68:107-114.

1976 ;64:688-708.

1984;44:385-395.

1992;85: 274-281

crowding on development time, survival and weight at metamorphosis in *Aedes aegypti* (Diptera: Culicidae). Revista de la Sociedad Entomolo´gica Argentina.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

[123] Tseng M. Sex-specific response of a mosquito to parasites and crowding. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences*.* 2004;271:186-188.

[125] Bedhomme S, Agnew P, Sidobre C, Michalakis Y. Sex specific reaction norms to intraspecific larval competition in the mosquito *Aedes aegypti*. Journal of Evolutionary Biology*.*

[126] Ukubuiwe AC, Ojianwuna CC, Olayemi IK, Arimoro FO, Omalu ICJ, Ukubuiwe CC, Baba BM. Quantifying the Influence of Larval density on Disease Transmission Indices in *Culex quinquefasciatus,* the major African vector of filariasis. International Journal of Insect Science. 2019;11:1-11. Doi:

[127] Briegel H. Metabolic relationship between female body size, reserves, and fecundity of *Aedes aegypti*. Journal of Insect Physiology. 1990;36:165-172.

[128] Gleiser RM, Urrutia J, Gorla DE. Effects of crowding on populations of *Aedes albifasciatus* larvae under laboratory conditions. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata.

[129] Legros M*,* Lloyd AL*,* Huang YX,

intraspecific competition in the larval stage of *Aedes aegypti* (Diptera: Culicidae): revisiting the current paradigm. Journal of Medical Entomology*.* 2009;46: 409*-*419*.*

[130] Hawley WA. The effect of larval density on adult longevity of a mosquito, *Aedes sierrensis*:

Gould F. Density-dependent

10.1177/1179543319856022

2000;95:135-140.

Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.

[124] Reisen WK. Intraspecific competition in *Anopheles stephensi*

Liston. Mosquito News*.* 1975;35, 473-482

2003;16:721-730.

2003;68:748-752.

#### *Environmental Manipulation: A Potential Tool for Mosquito Vector Control DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95924*

Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 2003;68:748-752.

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

pone.008865.

14:165-170.

1982;42:347-355.

Non-Physical Interference Competition among Mosquito Larvae. PLoSONE. 2014;9(2):e88650. doi: 10.1371/journal.

[116] Schneider P, Takken W, McCall PJ. Interspecific competition between sibling species larvae of *Anopheles arabiensis* and *An. gambiae*. Medical and

Intraspecific Competition for Food and Space on the Larval Development of *Culex quinquefasciatus*. Mosquito News*.*

[118] Timmermann SE, Briegel H. Water

Veterinary Entomology*.* 2000;

[117] Suleman M. The Effects of

depth and larval density affect development and accumulation of reserves in laboratory populations of mosquitoes. Bulletin of the Society of Vector Ecology*.* 1993;18:174-187.

[119] Reisen WK, Emory RW.

Omoyeni M, Oni L, Fayemi A, Ogunwomoju A. *Anopheles* species abundances, composition and vectorial competence in six areas of Lagos: Nigeria. Journal of Cell and Animal

Biology*.* 2007;1(2):19-23

[122] Ye-Ebiyo Y, Pollack RJ,

Intraspecific competition in *Anopheles stephensi* (Diptera Culicidae) II. The effects of more crowded densities and the addition of antibiotics. Canadian Entomology. 1977; 109:1475-1480.

[120] Okwa OO, Rasheed A, Adeyemi A,

[121] Gimnig JE, Ombok M, Otieno S, Kaufman MG, Vulule JM, Walker ED. Density-dependent development of *Anopheles gambiae* (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae in artificial habitats. Journal of Medical Entomology*.* 2002;39:162-172.

Kiszewski A, Spielman A. Enhancement of development of larval *Anopheles arabiensis* by proximity to flowering maize (*Zea mays*) in turbid water and when crowded. American Journal of

photoperiodic control of development in northern *Toxorhynchites rutilus* (Coq.). Canadian Journal of Zoology*.*

[109] Carmine LA, Ronald E. Effect of

*quadrimaculatus.* Florida Entomologist*.*

[110] Lanciani CA. Photoperiod and longevity in *Anopheles crucians*. Journal

of America Mosquito Control Association, 1993;9:308-312.

[111] Ukubuiwe AC, Olayemi IK, Omalu ICJ, Arimoro FO, Baba BM, Ukubuiwe CC. Effects of Varying Photoperiodic Regimens on Critical Biological Fitness traits of *Culex quinquefasciatus* (Diptera: Culicidae) Mosquito Vector. International Journal of Insect Science*.* 2018;10: 1-10. 10:1179543318767915 (doi: 10.1177/1179543318767915)

[112] Ukubuiwe AC, Olayemi IK, Omalu ICJ, Arimoro FO, Baba BM, Ukubuiwe CC. Influence of Variable Photoperiod on Life-stages Mobilization

of Teneral Reserves in *Culex* 

(doi: 10.5376/me.2018.09.0001)

[113] Jesha MM, Sebastian NM, Sheela PH, Mohamed IS, Manu AY. Mosquito Density in Urban Kerala: A Study to Calculate Larval Indices in Municipal Area of Perinthalmanna. Indian Journal of Forensic and Community Medicine. 2015;2(1):7-12.

*quinquefasciatus* (Diptera: Culicidae): Implication for Environmental Manipulation for Vector Control. Molecular Entomology*.* 2018;9(1): 1-10

[114] Tsurim I, Silberbush A, Ovadia O, Blaustein L, Margalith Y. Inter- and Intra-Specific Density-Dependent Effects on Life History and Development Strategies of Larval Mosquitoes. PlosOne. 2013;8:e57875.

[115] Silberbush A, Tsurim I, Rosen R, Margalith Y, Ovadia O. Species-Specific

Photoperiods on *Anopheles* 

1975;53:889-893.

1993;76(4):622.

**172**

[123] Tseng M. Sex-specific response of a mosquito to parasites and crowding. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences*.* 2004;271:186-188.

[124] Reisen WK. Intraspecific competition in *Anopheles stephensi* Liston. Mosquito News*.* 1975;35, 473-482

[125] Bedhomme S, Agnew P, Sidobre C, Michalakis Y. Sex specific reaction norms to intraspecific larval competition in the mosquito *Aedes aegypti*. Journal of Evolutionary Biology*.* 2003;16:721-730.

[126] Ukubuiwe AC, Ojianwuna CC, Olayemi IK, Arimoro FO, Omalu ICJ, Ukubuiwe CC, Baba BM. Quantifying the Influence of Larval density on Disease Transmission Indices in *Culex quinquefasciatus,* the major African vector of filariasis. International Journal of Insect Science. 2019;11:1-11. Doi: 10.1177/1179543319856022

[127] Briegel H. Metabolic relationship between female body size, reserves, and fecundity of *Aedes aegypti*. Journal of Insect Physiology. 1990;36:165-172.

[128] Gleiser RM, Urrutia J, Gorla DE. Effects of crowding on populations of *Aedes albifasciatus* larvae under laboratory conditions. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 2000;95:135-140.

[129] Legros M*,* Lloyd AL*,* Huang YX, Gould F. Density-dependent intraspecific competition in the larval stage of *Aedes aegypti* (Diptera: Culicidae): revisiting the current paradigm. Journal of Medical Entomology*.* 2009;46: 409*-*419*.*

[130] Hawley WA. The effect of larval density on adult longevity of a mosquito, *Aedes sierrensis*:

epidemiological consequences. Journal of Animal Ecology*.* 1985;54:955-964.

[131] Takken W, Klowden MJ, Chambers GM. Effect of body size on host seeking and blood meal utilization in *Anopheles gambiae* sensu stricto (Diptera: Culicidae): the disadvantage of being small. Journal of Medical Entomology. 1998;35:639-645.

[132] Macia´ A. Effects of larval crowding on development time, survival and weight at metamorphosis in *Aedes aegypti* (Diptera: Culicidae). Revista de la Sociedad Entomolo´gica Argentina. 2009;68:107-114.

[133] Roberts D, Kokkinn M. Larval crowding effects on the mosquito *Culex quinquefasciatus*: physical or chemical? Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata. 2010; 135:271-275.

[134] Rajagopalan PK, Yasuno M, Menon PK. Density effect on survival of immature stages of *Culex pipiens fatigans* in breeding sites in Delhi villages. The Indian Journal of Medical Research*.* 1976 ;64:688-708.

[135] Mori A. Effects of larval density and nutrition on some attribute of immature and adult *Ae. albopictus*. Tropical Medicine*.* 1979;21:85-103.

[136] Reisen WK, Milby MM, Bock ME. The effects of immature stress on selected events in the life history of *Culex tarsalis*. Mosquito News*.* 1984;44:385-395.

[137] Bradshaw WE, Holzapfel CM. Reproductive consequences of densitydependent size variation in the pitcher plant mosquito, *Wyeomyia smithii* (Diptera: Culicidae). Annals of Entomological Society of America*.* 1992;85: 274-281

[138] Barbosa P, Peters TM. Some effects of overcrowding on the respiration of larval *Aedes aegypti*. Entomologia

Experimentalis et Applicata*.* 1973;16: 146-156.

[139] Muriu SM, Coulson T, Mbogo CM, Godfray HCJ. Larval density dependence in *Anopheles gambiae* s.s., the major African vector of malaria. Journal of Animal Ecology*.* 2013;82:166-174.

[140] Roberts D. Overcrowding of *Culex sitiens* (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae: population regulation by chemical factors or mechanical interference*.* Journal of Medical Entomology. 1998;35:665-669.

*The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems*

Experimentalis et Applicata*.* 1973;16:

[139] Muriu SM, Coulson T, Mbogo CM,

dependence in *Anopheles gambiae* s.s., the major African vector of malaria.

[140] Roberts D. Overcrowding of *Culex sitiens* (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae: population regulation by chemical factors or mechanical interference*.* Journal of Medical Entomology.

Godfray HCJ. Larval density

Journal of Animal Ecology*.*

2013;82:166-174.

1998;35:665-669.

146-156.

**174**

### *Edited by Farzana Khan Perveen*

This book provides comprehensive and concise knowledge about Diptera, an order of insects that has both useful and harmful aspects for humans, animals, plants, and the environment. Insects of this order act as agricultural pests as well as vectors of diseases and carriers of microorganisms. Chapters cover such topics as characteristics of different types of Dipteran insects including fruit flies, mosquitos, and midges, and strategies to control insect populations to combat the spread of human and animal diseases such as dengue, trypanosomosis, and others.

Published in London, UK © 2021 IntechOpen © Windy Soemara / iStock

The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance

for the World's Ecosystems

The Wonders of Diptera

Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance

for the World's Ecosystems

*Edited by Farzana Khan Perveen*