**2.4 Template methods**

*Novel Nanomaterials*

**Figure 4.**

**48**

**Figure 5.**

*agglomeration and aggregation [27].*

**2.3 The Smoluchowski process**

*An example of a particle formation mechanism based on the Smoluchowski process with an emphasis on* 

when flocculation is found in water-in-oil [18] emulsions. Schematically the w/o

*Schematic of both w/o and o/w emulsion and hollow particles formation (a) using oleyamine micelles [19], and* 

lize emulsions, especially O / W and W/O/W double emulsions [25].

the Smoluchowski mechanism is presented in **Figure 5** below.

The Smoluchowski process is a process to produce nano hollow complex materials in an "integrative" nature from colloidal particles. An example of this preparation was the manufacture of titanium oxide, TiO2, and the yield observed by a high-resolution TEM [26]. The HRTEM TiO2 micrograph showed that the tiny nanocrystallites stuck to each other in the aggregated end product while keeping the overall orientation unchanged. An example of the formation of particles based on

Ostwald ripening mechanism is well-known through several growth methods, such as island formation [20], layer by layer formation [21], and the mixed layers and islands formation [22] as illustrated in a solidified growth of carbon sphere in **Figure 4b**. The emulsion produced in the w/o or o/w system is affected by various factors such as pressure (Laplace and osmotic), the concentration of the dispersed phase, the concentration of surfactants, and the additives used. Furthermore, the emulsifiers or surfactants used are generally biopolymers such as various proteins (whey protein isolate (WPI), β-lactoglobulin, casein, soy protein isolate (SPI), and pea protein [24], polysaccharides such as xanthan, Arabic gum, modified starch, carrageenan, pectin, and modified celluloses frequently utilized to stabi-

and o/w emulsions are presented below in **Figure 4a**.

*the growth of solid carbon sphere (b) based on Ostwald repining mechanism [23].*

These methods can effectively control the morphology, particle size, and structure during the nanomaterial manufacturing process. In general, these methods consist of two types/categories, namely: hard methods and soft (or one-pot or self) templates according to different structures. The methods of templates in their preparation are insensitive, easy to operate, and practice.
