Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal Urban City in South Asia

*Manikanda Bharath Karuppasamy, Srinivasalu Seshachalam, Usha Natesan and Karthik Ramasamy*

## **Abstract**

This study is performed to evaluate the potential sources and seasonal variation of atmospheric mercury (Hg) emissions from regional sources and other influences in India. To achieve this, using the gold amalgam technique with an automated continuous mercury vapour analyzer (TekranTM 2537B). To assess the total gaseous mercury in high altitude mountain peak station at Kodaikanal & coastal/urban air in Chennai region, the impact of changing weather conditions is also evaluated. To compare the past and recent reports of mercury at different locations in the world. The average total gaseous mercury value in Chennai is 4.68 ng/m3 , which is higher as compared to Kodaikanal, where it is 1.53 ng/m3 . The association between TGM with meteorological parameters in ambient air such as temperature, relative humidity, rainfall intensity, the direction of wind and velocity of was studied. The TGM concentration in India are compared with other nations, the TGM levels are similar to the east and Southeast Asian countries, and also Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa and North America are the averages and maximum concentration generally smaller. This research will help to establish more effective management approaches to mitigate the impacts of atmospheric mercury on the rural and urban environment.

**Keywords:** ambient total gaseous mercury, meteorological parameters, high-altitude station, coastal urban city, global perspective

## **1. Introduction**

The Atmosphere hosts almost all emissions from every source on the Earth's surface, freshwater bodies, oceanic surface and anthropogenic emissions. In the atmosphere, mercury occurs in the following three primary forms: The gaseous elemental mercury (GEM), reactive elemental mercury or divalent mercury (RGM) and particulate mercury (PHg) [1, 2]. There is a significant quantity of research which indicates that these elements in the environment, water and marine environments via a dynamic mixture of transport and transformation in natural and human (anthropogenic) [1, 3–5]. Mercury (Hg) stays as a natural substance with the biogeochemical cycle, which is involved in the Earth and is considered as a contaminant because of its long-range transport in the atmosphere [6, 7]. At World level, about 50 to 70% of total mercury discharge is through anthropogenic exercises, including petroleum product ignition, smelting of metals, burning of urban waste, the release of smoke from coal-burning power plants [8, 9]. In nature, mercury occurs in three unmistakable structures, GEM, RGM and PHg [10–13]. Among these three structures, RGM and PHg shift rapidly because of their characteristics such as high-water dissolvability and reactivity [14, 15]. The lifetime of GEM is 0.5 to 2 years, which is sufficient for its transportation worldwide level [16–18]. It is reported that East Asian Nations are a standout amongst the most critical patrons of worldwide anthropogenic mercury discharge [19–21]. Total gaseous mercury (Hg0) evasion is approximated to be 2900 mg/year (range 1900–4200 mg/yr) from the ocean [22, 23]. The ocean is therefore known to be the primary terrestrial Hg source worldwide, contrasted with approximately 2000 mg/yr from direct anthropogenic emissions. Hg usually occurs in geochemical reserves, but for several years human activities including mining and more recent burning of fossil fuels have increased the emission of Hg from the mineral source into the atmosphere [24, 25]. The background means the concentration of TGM in the northern hemisphere (1.3–1.6 ng m−3), southern hemisphere (1.1–1.3 ng m−3) and tropic regions (0.8–1.1 ng m−3) respectively [26–28]. Various investigations have been completed worldwide on GEM mainly centred on the urban and rural locales, including mining and mechanical territories [29–34]. A thorough investigation of the air fluctuation, adding up to vaporous mercury and their relationship at the high-altitude station (Kodaikanal) of Southern India has been reported [35]. However, there is no complete investigation of the developed and developing urban regions of India and their contribution to TGM. This is the first research in India with a comparative and continuous observation of the temporal variations in TGM and its relationship to other meteorological parameters in urban and rural high-altitude stations. In general, the variation in mean seasonal concentration of TGM depends largely on meteorological variables. The study aims to investigate that during the day concentration of TGM is strongly change by solar radiation, evaporation and weather patterns. The main objectives of this study are to assess the Seasonal variability of atmospheric Total Gaseous Mercury (TGM) in highaltitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in India, to identify the potential sources and sinks of atmospheric mercury in the study areas and the influence of changing weather conditions on the atmospheric mercury distribution. Further, to compare the concentration of mercury in the past and recent findings of mercury at different locations around the world.

## **2. Materials and methods**

In this study, monitoring sites are centrally located in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India (**Figure 1**). Kodaikanal is situated on a plateau on the southern ridge of upper Palani hill, at 2133 m (6998 ft) between the valleys of Parappar and Gundar. Such hills surround the Western Ghats mountains on the western side of South India. Kodaikanal region covering the whole of Kodaikanal taluk is located between 10° 7'56" N latitude and 10°26' and 77°15' East and 77°42' East longitude. Such hills shape the western Ghats on the west portion of South India's eastward slope. Kodaikanal is located on the east coast of the Western Ghats, at the southern end of the elevated hills of Palani of Dindigul district, in the state of Tamil Nadu. For a long time in Kodaikanal, despite reports of extensive mercury contamination, the closure of a mercury factory owned by the Indian Unilever company Hindustan Unilever became a big concern. There are 35,021 residents in Kodaikanal.

**63**

**Figure 1.**

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal…*

Chennai, situated on the South East Coast of India is the capital of Tamil Nadu.

The Total Gaseous Mercury (TGM) estimation was carried out using a Tekran™ 2537B utilizing an in-situ automated ambient mercury vapour analyzer. Tekran mercury vapour analyzer (2537B) continuously measured the TGM every 5-minutes from January 2015 to December 2016 at high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India. The meteorological information was acquired from computerized weather stations such as the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Chennai station, Indian Meteorological Department and World weather online. Consistent informational collections of the above said parameters were recorded for each 15-minute interim and per day averages. Using a Mercury Vapor Automated Analyzer (Model No–Tekran 2537B), the addition of total gaseous mercury (TGM) was studied. To this achieve, using cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (CVAFS) techniques and the minimum

The Chennai city houses large scale enterprises like Petrochemical businesses, Thermal power plants, Rubber Factories and also many small-scale industries are prospering in and around the city. Chennai Metropolitan falls in the tropical wet and dry climatic condition, with the average barometrical temperature of around 25 to 40°C. The normal yearly precipitation of the city is approximately 140 cm. Because of its varied industrial and domestic setting, Chennai Metropolitan is a suitable site for studying the variations in the concentration of TGM in the air. The computerized mercury vapour analyzer (Model No - Tekran 2537B) placed at Anna University, Guindy Campus, Chennai (13° 0'45.05" N - 80° 14'2.66" E; MSL – 49 ft) was used for TGM measurements. TGM measurement and dataset were collected from the top of the Institute for ocean management, building in the Guindy campus of Anna University. The sampling height is about 50 m above the ground level, and the sample inlet was fixed in 1m above the floor of the sampling site. Many significant roads crossed in the nearby observation sites it creating vehicular pollution, with no significant sources of massive industrial pollution within 10 km radius.

*Atmospheric Total Gaseous Mercury (TGM) monitoring sites in high-altitude background station* 

*(Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

**3. Sampling methods and materials**

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

#### **Figure 1.**

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

At World level, about 50 to 70% of total mercury discharge is through anthropogenic exercises, including petroleum product ignition, smelting of metals, burning of urban waste, the release of smoke from coal-burning power plants [8, 9]. In nature, mercury occurs in three unmistakable structures, GEM, RGM and PHg [10–13]. Among these three structures, RGM and PHg shift rapidly because of their characteristics such as high-water dissolvability and reactivity [14, 15]. The lifetime of GEM is 0.5 to 2 years, which is sufficient for its transportation worldwide level [16–18]. It is reported that East Asian Nations are a standout amongst the most critical patrons of worldwide anthropogenic mercury discharge [19–21]. Total gaseous mercury (Hg0) evasion is approximated to be 2900 mg/year (range 1900–4200 mg/yr) from the ocean [22, 23]. The ocean is therefore known to be the primary terrestrial Hg source worldwide, contrasted with approximately 2000 mg/yr from direct anthropogenic emissions. Hg usually occurs in geochemical reserves, but for several years human activities including mining and more recent burning of fossil fuels have increased the emission of Hg from the mineral source into the atmosphere [24, 25]. The background means the concentration of TGM in the northern hemisphere (1.3–1.6 ng m−3), southern hemisphere (1.1–1.3 ng m−3) and tropic regions (0.8–1.1 ng m−3) respectively [26–28]. Various investigations have been completed worldwide on GEM mainly centred on the urban and rural locales, including mining and mechanical territories [29–34]. A thorough investigation of the air fluctuation, adding up to vaporous mercury and their relationship at the high-altitude station (Kodaikanal) of Southern India has been reported [35]. However, there is no complete investigation of the developed and developing urban regions of India and their contribution to TGM. This is the first research in India with a comparative and continuous observation of the temporal variations in TGM and its relationship to other meteorological parameters in urban and rural high-altitude stations. In general, the variation in mean seasonal concentration of TGM depends largely on meteorological variables. The study aims to investigate that during the day concentration of TGM is strongly change by solar radiation, evaporation and weather patterns. The main objectives of this study are to assess the Seasonal variability of atmospheric Total Gaseous Mercury (TGM) in highaltitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in India, to identify the potential sources and sinks of atmospheric mercury in the study areas and the influence of changing weather conditions on the atmospheric mercury distribution. Further, to compare the concentration of mercury in the past and recent findings of mercury at different locations around the world.

In this study, monitoring sites are centrally located in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India (**Figure 1**). Kodaikanal is situated on a plateau on the southern ridge of upper Palani hill, at 2133 m (6998 ft) between the valleys of Parappar and Gundar. Such hills surround the Western Ghats mountains on the western side of South India. Kodaikanal region covering the whole of Kodaikanal taluk is located between 10° 7'56" N latitude and 10°26' and 77°15' East and 77°42' East longitude. Such hills shape the western Ghats on the west portion of South India's eastward slope. Kodaikanal is located on the east coast of the Western Ghats, at the southern end of the elevated hills of Palani of Dindigul district, in the state of Tamil Nadu. For a long time in Kodaikanal, despite reports of extensive mercury contamination, the closure of a mercury factory owned by the Indian Unilever company Hindustan Unilever became a big concern.

**62**

**2. Materials and methods**

There are 35,021 residents in Kodaikanal.

*Atmospheric Total Gaseous Mercury (TGM) monitoring sites in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India.*

Chennai, situated on the South East Coast of India is the capital of Tamil Nadu. The Chennai city houses large scale enterprises like Petrochemical businesses, Thermal power plants, Rubber Factories and also many small-scale industries are prospering in and around the city. Chennai Metropolitan falls in the tropical wet and dry climatic condition, with the average barometrical temperature of around 25 to 40°C. The normal yearly precipitation of the city is approximately 140 cm. Because of its varied industrial and domestic setting, Chennai Metropolitan is a suitable site for studying the variations in the concentration of TGM in the air. The computerized mercury vapour analyzer (Model No - Tekran 2537B) placed at Anna University, Guindy Campus, Chennai (13° 0'45.05" N - 80° 14'2.66" E; MSL – 49 ft) was used for TGM measurements. TGM measurement and dataset were collected from the top of the Institute for ocean management, building in the Guindy campus of Anna University. The sampling height is about 50 m above the ground level, and the sample inlet was fixed in 1m above the floor of the sampling site. Many significant roads crossed in the nearby observation sites it creating vehicular pollution, with no significant sources of massive industrial pollution within 10 km radius.

### **3. Sampling methods and materials**

The Total Gaseous Mercury (TGM) estimation was carried out using a Tekran™ 2537B utilizing an in-situ automated ambient mercury vapour analyzer. Tekran mercury vapour analyzer (2537B) continuously measured the TGM every 5-minutes from January 2015 to December 2016 at high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India. The meteorological information was acquired from computerized weather stations such as the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Chennai station, Indian Meteorological Department and World weather online. Consistent informational collections of the above said parameters were recorded for each 15-minute interim and per day averages. Using a Mercury Vapor Automated Analyzer (Model No–Tekran 2537B), the addition of total gaseous mercury (TGM) was studied. To this achieve, using cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (CVAFS) techniques and the minimum

detection limit 0.1 ng/m3 , which are described. When the ambient air was analyzed, a 47 mm Teflon filter was inserted in the whole measurement method of usage of the experiment. The flow rate is constant 1 L min–1 during all sampling periods. The implicit two gold cartridges, on the other hand, gather and thermally desorb mercury. The analyzer measured the Hg concentrations with intervals of 5 minutes automatically every 24 hours, and it was calibrated with its internal permeation sources. Present measurements at atmospheric TGM concentrations include other parameters, temperature, relative humidity, density, rainfall intensity, the direction of wind and velocity of the wind. The analyzer is automatically adjusted every 24 hours for each cartridge utilizing the internal ZERO and SPAN Permeation Processes. The peak areas for both cartridges during the calibration cycle are ensured during the ZERO process and under an error of less than ± 10% during the SPAN process. Computerized day-to-day alignments were performed every 24 hours (3.10 p.m. and 3.40 p.m.) using the instrument's internal adjustment source [35, 36]. The periodical inner alignment expels both in traverse and zero that are caused for the most part by temperature and maturing of the fluorimeter light. The tested air was estimated in each five-minute time interim at a stream rate of 5 L min−1. The detail of the inspecting air and the precision status of the instrument is clarified by Mao et al. The recognition furthest reaches of the TGM are< 0.1 ng m−3. The precision of the estimation and the task is ± 5 %. Zero air was utilized as straightforward for the instrument. Airstream was gathered through PFA Teflon tube, which was tried with an aftereffect of around 100 % RGM passing proficiency (vacillation of RGM is once in a while < 2 %). However, this method is still the most accurate to date and is widely used for the observation of speciated Hg in ambient air.

## **4. Results and discussion**

## **4.1 Characteristics of TGM in the high-altitude background station in South India**

In the meteorological variables at the high-altitude ground station at Kodaikanal, India continued measurement of total gaseous mercury (TGM= Gaseous Elemental Mercury (GEM) + Reactive Gaseous Mercury (RGM) was performed from Jan 2015 to December 2015). The mean concentration for TGM was 1.49 ng m−3 with a range of 1.1–2.10 ng m−3 is shown in **Figure 2**. The Global Mercury Observation System (GMOS) ground-based monitoring sites in India are also the highest altitude monitoring location in the GMOS network at Kodaikanal (South India). Such measurement positions constitute a major addition to the GMOS network and improve the understanding of atmospheric Hg species in this world region. The statistical summary of TGM concentration along with the meteorological parameters in the ambient air of Kodaikanal during the study period provided in **Table 1**. **Figure 2** shows the hourly average, daily average, monthly variation of TGM concentration in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) in South India. The maximum hourly and daily average concentrations were 2.55 ng/m3 and 1.95 ng/m3 , respectively. The TGM concentration was occurring at every day for a month, evening time (3.00 am to 6.00 pm; the maximum concentration within the whole-time frame) it is shown in **Figure 2**. This finding was identical to previous observations of [37], at high altitude, remote area of the region of Mt. Changbai, northeast China. Mean annual TGM concentrations at the site of Kodaikanal were recorded at 1.52 ± 0.24 ng/m3 ; between 0.77 ng/m3 and 3.35 ng/m3 . These observable values of mean TGM concentrations were strongly linked to previous observations [35]. The average TGM values in the study

**65**

**Figure 2.**

*South India.*

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal…*

, accounted for approximately 96% of the overall TGM. The annual

) it shows in **Figure 2**. The day-night fluctuations in the TGM

), while in July 2015 the

) compared

. The geogenic

. The TGM concentrations range from 0.7

area have also been compared with those reported from the high-altitude rural areas, but lower than in the Asian coastal regions [30, 38]. The highest monthly

level may be induced by temperature variations and thus condensation levels and soil volatilization. A rural site with a similar altitude (~2800 m) in the south of France, where the estimation of TGM in the Pic du Midi Observatory [39], with

mercury emissions are almost ~0.5 kilotonnes per year (kt y−1) and re-emission of Hg ~1.6 kt y−1 from the sources of plants and biomass burning [40]. The mercury deposition can be influenced by organic substances complexation, binding to Fe-Mn oxides, hydrothermal pollutants, sulfide interaction and methylation, as well as world proximities such as river drainage, waste sources, etc. [9, 10, 19, 41]. Meteorological conditions of high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) in South India studied during the period under report are presented in **Figure 3**. The rose diagram graphically displays wind speed, and wind direction graph indicates that West, ENE direction has the maximum value of frequency fall in 20% with a wind speed range of 4–5 m/s at December to March. The minimum wind speed ranges 2–3 m/s falls in during May to November in Kodaikanal site (**Figure 3**). The relative humidity values increased from June to November; also, the TGM

*Diurnal and monthly variation of TGM concentration in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) in* 

mean TGM values were usually higher during the day time (1.57 ng/m3

equivalent techniques, recorded an average of 1.86 ± 0.27 ng/m3

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

lowest monthly average was 1.08 ng/m3

to 2.0 ng/m3

tonight (1.08 ng/m3

average TGM was reported in April 2015 (2.07 ng/m3

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

area have also been compared with those reported from the high-altitude rural areas, but lower than in the Asian coastal regions [30, 38]. The highest monthly average TGM was reported in April 2015 (2.07 ng/m3 ), while in July 2015 the lowest monthly average was 1.08 ng/m3 . The TGM concentrations range from 0.7 to 2.0 ng/m3 , accounted for approximately 96% of the overall TGM. The annual mean TGM values were usually higher during the day time (1.57 ng/m3 ) compared tonight (1.08 ng/m3 ) it shows in **Figure 2**. The day-night fluctuations in the TGM level may be induced by temperature variations and thus condensation levels and soil volatilization. A rural site with a similar altitude (~2800 m) in the south of France, where the estimation of TGM in the Pic du Midi Observatory [39], with equivalent techniques, recorded an average of 1.86 ± 0.27 ng/m3 . The geogenic mercury emissions are almost ~0.5 kilotonnes per year (kt y−1) and re-emission of Hg ~1.6 kt y−1 from the sources of plants and biomass burning [40]. The mercury deposition can be influenced by organic substances complexation, binding to Fe-Mn oxides, hydrothermal pollutants, sulfide interaction and methylation, as well as world proximities such as river drainage, waste sources, etc. [9, 10, 19, 41]. Meteorological conditions of high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) in South India studied during the period under report are presented in **Figure 3**. The rose diagram graphically displays wind speed, and wind direction graph indicates that West, ENE direction has the maximum value of frequency fall in 20% with a wind speed range of 4–5 m/s at December to March. The minimum wind speed ranges 2–3 m/s falls in during May to November in Kodaikanal site (**Figure 3**). The relative humidity values increased from June to November; also, the TGM

**Figure 2.**

*Diurnal and monthly variation of TGM concentration in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) in South India.*

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

, which are described. When the ambient air was analyzed,

a 47 mm Teflon filter was inserted in the whole measurement method of usage of the experiment. The flow rate is constant 1 L min–1 during all sampling periods. The implicit two gold cartridges, on the other hand, gather and thermally desorb mercury. The analyzer measured the Hg concentrations with intervals of 5 minutes automatically every 24 hours, and it was calibrated with its internal permeation sources. Present measurements at atmospheric TGM concentrations include other parameters, temperature, relative humidity, density, rainfall intensity, the direction of wind and velocity of the wind. The analyzer is automatically adjusted every 24 hours for each cartridge utilizing the internal ZERO and SPAN Permeation Processes. The peak areas for both cartridges during the calibration cycle are ensured during the ZERO process and under an error of less than ± 10% during the SPAN process. Computerized day-to-day alignments were performed every 24 hours (3.10 p.m. and 3.40 p.m.) using the instrument's internal adjustment source [35, 36]. The periodical inner alignment expels both in traverse and zero that are caused for the most part by temperature and maturing of the fluorimeter light. The tested air was estimated in each five-minute time interim at a stream rate of 5 L min−1. The detail of the inspecting air and the precision status of the instrument is clarified by Mao et al. The recognition furthest reaches of the TGM are< 0.1 ng m−3. The precision of the estimation and the task is ± 5 %. Zero air was utilized as straightforward for the instrument. Airstream was gathered through PFA Teflon tube, which was tried with an aftereffect of around 100 % RGM passing proficiency (vacillation of RGM is once in a while < 2 %). However, this method is still the most accurate to date and is widely used for the observation of speciated Hg in ambient air.

**4.1 Characteristics of TGM in the high-altitude background station** 

and 1.95 ng/m3

trations at the site of Kodaikanal were recorded at 1.52 ± 0.24 ng/m3

In the meteorological variables at the high-altitude ground station at Kodaikanal, India continued measurement of total gaseous mercury (TGM= Gaseous Elemental Mercury (GEM) + Reactive Gaseous Mercury (RGM) was performed from Jan 2015 to December 2015). The mean concentration for TGM was 1.49 ng m−3 with a range of 1.1–2.10 ng m−3 is shown in **Figure 2**. The Global Mercury Observation System (GMOS) ground-based monitoring sites in India are also the highest altitude monitoring location in the GMOS network at Kodaikanal (South India). Such measurement positions constitute a major addition to the GMOS network and improve the understanding of atmospheric Hg species in this world region. The statistical summary of TGM concentration along with the meteorological parameters in the ambient air of Kodaikanal during the study period provided in **Table 1**. **Figure 2** shows the hourly average, daily average, monthly variation of TGM concentration in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) in South India. The maximum hourly and daily average concentra-

occurring at every day for a month, evening time (3.00 am to 6.00 pm; the maximum concentration within the whole-time frame) it is shown in **Figure 2**. This finding was identical to previous observations of [37], at high altitude, remote area of the region of Mt. Changbai, northeast China. Mean annual TGM concen-

strongly linked to previous observations [35]. The average TGM values in the study

, respectively. The TGM concentration was

. These observable values of mean TGM concentrations were

; between 0.77

detection limit 0.1 ng/m3

**4. Results and discussion**

**in South India**

tions were 2.55 ng/m3

and 3.35 ng/m3

**64**

ng/m3


#### **Table 1.**

*Statistical summary and Seasonal variations of ambient air quality parameters sites in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India.*

concentrations were decreased. But relative humidity values decreased from December to May; similarly, the TGM concentrations were increased. Between November and May (dry season), the TGM concentration difference was relatively higher than between June and August (wet season). The Correlation trends of TGM concentration and meteorological parameters in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) in South India it shows in **Figure 3**. There were major differences in the mean seasonal concentration of TGM, which mainly depends on weather conditions, and found to be the following: Summer > Winter > Northeast monsoon or Autumn > South-West monsoon or Spring it is given in **Table 1**. This research also showed that solar radiation, evaporation and rainfall strongly changed the daytime TGM concentration. The seasonal variation is influenced by meteorological conditions and other external sources [4, 14]. The gaseous elemental mercury is an important pathway from soil to atmosphere at the forest and to the environment [19]. Also, in the Kodaikanal region, the mean annual TGM value in the Northern Hemisphere in Kodaikanal is well within the ranges of the recorded TGM background for the area (1.5–1.7 ng/m3 ). These ground stations mainly track the remote background at high altitude sites and sea levels. The meteorological conditions are significantly influenced by the topsoils and vegetation to release mercury in nature environments [8, 26]. The findings were also significantly affected by long- transport of improved Hg air masses from the eastern part of Gansu, the west of Shanxi, the west of Ningxia as well as northern India [37]. Furthermore, these studies have shown that natural source emissions in summer are higher than in winter.

## **4.2 Temporal variability of atmospheric mercury in Chennai coastal and urban region**

Diurnal and monthly variation of TGM concentration and meteorological parameters in the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India were estimated in-situ. In the overall monitoring period, day by day, TGM esteem ranges from 0.07 to 638.74 with a mean estimation of 4.68 ng/m3 . The highest concentration of total

**67**

**Figure 3.**

*(Kodaikanal) in South India.*

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal…*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

gaseous mercury was recorded in June 2016 (638.74 ng/m3

the Northern Hemisphere foundation concentration (1.50–1.75 ng/m3

*Trends of TGM concentration and meteorological parameters in high-altitude background station* 

South India (**Figure 4**). The measured values of TGM are having a higher range than

concentration occurring at every day, night or early morning (2.00 am to 7.00 am; the maximum concentration within the whole-time frame) is shown in **Figure 4**. Similarly, TGM concentrations were higher in the early in the morning and midnight times reported by Schmolke et al. [36]. Such night-time maximums of TGM concentration [33, 36, 43, 44] have been due to mercury releases in the night-time inversion layer from surface accumulations. The potential sources of TGM in the investigation ground are from coal-based power plants, vehicular discharge, and

tion was recorded in August 2016 (0.07 ng/m3

), and lowest concentra-

) [9, 42]. TGM

) at the coastal urban city (Chennai) in

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

**Sites Air Quality Parameters Seasons**

TGM (ng/m3

TGM (ng/m3

*background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India.*

Chennai Wind Speed (m/s) 1.13 1.38 1.41 1.11

Kodaikanal Wind Speed (m/s) 8.60 6.70 8.40 9.20

Wind Dir (Deg) 198 131 157 187 Temp (°C) 29 30 31 27 RH (%) 71 73 67 73 SR (W/sq.m) 199 254 213 198

Wind Dir (Deg) 177 258 129 150 Temp (°C) 17.6 17.4 20.5 18.1 RH (%) 92.2 91.1 82.6 80.3 SR (W/sq.m) 290 304 346 322

) 4.69 5.40 3.62 5.39

) 1.54 1.38 1.62 1.59

concentrations were decreased. But relative humidity values decreased from December to May; similarly, the TGM concentrations were increased. Between November and May (dry season), the TGM concentration difference was relatively higher than between June and August (wet season). The Correlation trends of TGM concentration and meteorological parameters in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) in South India it shows in **Figure 3**. There were major differences in the mean seasonal concentration of TGM, which mainly depends on weather conditions, and found to be the following: Summer > Winter > Northeast monsoon or Autumn > South-West monsoon or Spring it is given in **Table 1**. This research also showed that solar radiation, evaporation and rainfall strongly changed the daytime TGM concentration. The seasonal variation is influenced by meteorological conditions and other external sources [4, 14]. The gaseous elemental mercury is an important pathway from soil to atmosphere at the forest and to the environment [19]. Also, in the Kodaikanal region, the mean annual TGM value in the Northern Hemisphere in Kodaikanal is well within the ranges of the recorded TGM back-

*Statistical summary and Seasonal variations of ambient air quality parameters sites in high-altitude* 

background at high altitude sites and sea levels. The meteorological conditions are significantly influenced by the topsoils and vegetation to release mercury in nature environments [8, 26]. The findings were also significantly affected by long- transport of improved Hg air masses from the eastern part of Gansu, the west of Shanxi, the west of Ningxia as well as northern India [37]. Furthermore, these studies have

shown that natural source emissions in summer are higher than in winter.

**4.2 Temporal variability of atmospheric mercury in Chennai coastal** 

Diurnal and monthly variation of TGM concentration and meteorological parameters in the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India were estimated in-situ. In the overall monitoring period, day by day, TGM esteem ranges from 0.07

). These ground stations mainly track the remote

**Autumn Spring Summer Winter**

. The highest concentration of total

**66**

**Table 1.**

ground for the area (1.5–1.7 ng/m3

**and urban region**

to 638.74 with a mean estimation of 4.68 ng/m3

*Trends of TGM concentration and meteorological parameters in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) in South India.*

gaseous mercury was recorded in June 2016 (638.74 ng/m3 ), and lowest concentration was recorded in August 2016 (0.07 ng/m3 ) at the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India (**Figure 4**). The measured values of TGM are having a higher range than the Northern Hemisphere foundation concentration (1.50–1.75 ng/m3 ) [9, 42]. TGM concentration occurring at every day, night or early morning (2.00 am to 7.00 am; the maximum concentration within the whole-time frame) is shown in **Figure 4**. Similarly, TGM concentrations were higher in the early in the morning and midnight times reported by Schmolke et al. [36]. Such night-time maximums of TGM concentration [33, 36, 43, 44] have been due to mercury releases in the night-time inversion layer from surface accumulations. The potential sources of TGM in the investigation ground are from coal-based power plants, vehicular discharge, and

**Figure 4.** *Diurnal and monthly variation of TGM concentration in the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India.*

squander burning [11, 12, 43]. The short-term measurements of TGM in china report recommend that the TGM ranges from 2.5 to 3.5 ng/m3 for east beach front territories of China, 1.94 to 3.22 ng m−3 for Indochina peninsular regions [29]. Ci et al. [45] revealed that sea occasions are effectively engaged with the conveyance of the GEM along with the beachfront territories. Globally an average of 1.5 ng/m3 of gaseous mercury is found in the atmosphere and Chennai; the average is 4.68 ng/ m3 . The present-day a large source of atmospheric mercury obtains from the ocean the mostly in Hg0 (approximately ranges 1900–4200 Mg/year). The datasets of meteorological parameters versus TGM were plotted in **Figure 5**. Amidst the whole investigation time frame, the most extreme aggregate recurrence of wind rose was seen between 35 to 65° (NE) and 195 to 275° (SSE to WSW), and this focus is around 39% of the aggregate TGM outflow from the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India **Figure 5**. TGM fluctuations were observed seasonally and diurnally, which suggested differences in source intensity, deposition processes and meteorological influences. The meteorological data set observed used to compare total gaseous mercury variation in the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India, and it shows in **Figure 5**. The annual rose diagram graphically displays wind speed, and wind direction graph indicates that NE direction has the maximum value of frequency fall in 14% with a wind speed range of more than 5 m/s at Chennai urban environments. It is observed that when the temperature (27 centigrade) is low, the total gaseous mercury is found to be maximum (8.07 ng/m3 ) for February (**Figure 5**). olar radiation, temperature, relative humidity and the wind speed increased a month of April, but the TGM concentration was in declined it shows in **Figure 5**. The TGM concentration was in positively correlated in barometric pressure and wind direction. The TGM concentrations continuously decreased in the following months, April to August; similarly, the barometric pressure and relative humidity also decreased (**Figure 5**). The meteorological parameters play a vital role in regulating atmospheric total gaseous mercury concentrations [15, 46]. The leading cause of pollution in megacities India is affected by the coal-fired power plants, transportation, industrial activity and also urban solid waste [47]. The peak concentration of total gaseous mercury was observed in Chennai urban environments during Winter as 5.64 ng/m3 , and the lowest concentration occurred during South-West

**69**

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal…*

and Summer due to long-range transportation of total gaseous mercury compared to autumn and spring seasons. The concentration of total gaseous mercury for the four seasons are arranged in the following order: Winter > Summer > Autumn > Spring

*Trends of TGM concentration and meteorological parameters in the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South* 

The influence of seasonal shift is very predominant in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India. The meteorological parameters (Wind speed, wind direction, solar radiation, Atmospheric temperature, Relative humidity) and TGM focus were connected to decide the relationship connection between the informational indices of the monitoring sites. Total gaseous mercury concentration varies significantly with wind speed and wind direction and other meteorological parameters, a concentration which changes with the seasons as given in **Table 1**. China and India where less attention of recycling the waste and increased production of coal combustion, metals, chlorine, and cement production. In India imported mercury users of Chlor-alkali plants, thermometers, batteries, Hg-Zinc, Zn-Carbon, fluorescent lamps, thermostat switches, alarm clocks, and hearing aids a total mercury user of 129.32 (Mg) reported by Mukherjee et al. [47]. A total of 6500 tones year−1, adapted from, was measured for mercury emissions from biomass combustion, geogenic activities, and soil/vegetation/ocean emissions. The atmospheric mercury emissions approximately one-third from the sources of anthropogenic emissions similarly, natural emissions 70% and Oceanic emissions from 36% [31]. The primary anthropogenic sources such as combustion of fossil fuels for 24% and coal-burning (21%) at worldwide estimated emissions [5]. The approximately 2320 Mg of mercury is released yearly to the worldwide atmosphere (31%) for the primary sources of anthropogenic emission [8]. The world's leading mercury reservoirs, a unit of the Earth's measurement system and still an ecosystem suffering from anthropogenic activity, encompass the atmosphere (4.4 to 5.3 Gt), the terrestrial environment (in particular soils: 250 to 1000 Gg) and aquatic ecosystems (e.g. oceans: 270 to 450 Gg) [48]. The sustainability of mercury monitoring networks is an essential factor affecting the effectiveness of monitoring efforts. In a global mercury assessment in 2013, mercury reported to dental usage measured at roughly 270-341 tons in 2010 [49], which represents 10% of global consumption of mercury **Figure 6**. Recently, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report 2018 to estimate the anthropogenic sources of

for the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India it is given in **Table 1**.

**4.3 Mercury assessment of South Asia and global perspective**

. The highest concentration is observed during Winter

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

Monsoon, which is 3.91 ng/m3

**Figure 5.**

*India.*

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

**Figure 5.**

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

squander burning [11, 12, 43]. The short-term measurements of TGM in china

*Diurnal and monthly variation of TGM concentration in the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India.*

territories of China, 1.94 to 3.22 ng m−3 for Indochina peninsular regions [29]. Ci et al. [45] revealed that sea occasions are effectively engaged with the conveyance of the GEM along with the beachfront territories. Globally an average of 1.5 ng/m3

gaseous mercury is found in the atmosphere and Chennai; the average is 4.68 ng/

olar radiation, temperature, relative humidity and the wind speed increased a month of April, but the TGM concentration was in declined it shows in **Figure 5**. The TGM concentration was in positively correlated in barometric pressure and wind direction. The TGM concentrations continuously decreased in the following months, April to August; similarly, the barometric pressure and relative humidity also decreased (**Figure 5**). The meteorological parameters play a vital role in regulating atmospheric total gaseous mercury concentrations [15, 46]. The leading cause of pollution in megacities India is affected by the coal-fired power plants, transportation, industrial activity and also urban solid waste [47]. The peak concentration of total gaseous mercury was observed in Chennai urban environments dur-

. The present-day a large source of atmospheric mercury obtains from the ocean the mostly in Hg0 (approximately ranges 1900–4200 Mg/year). The datasets of meteorological parameters versus TGM were plotted in **Figure 5**. Amidst the whole investigation time frame, the most extreme aggregate recurrence of wind rose was seen between 35 to 65° (NE) and 195 to 275° (SSE to WSW), and this focus is around 39% of the aggregate TGM outflow from the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India **Figure 5**. TGM fluctuations were observed seasonally and diurnally, which suggested differences in source intensity, deposition processes and meteorological influences. The meteorological data set observed used to compare total gaseous mercury variation in the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India, and it shows in **Figure 5**. The annual rose diagram graphically displays wind speed, and wind direction graph indicates that NE direction has the maximum value of frequency fall in 14% with a wind speed range of more than 5 m/s at Chennai urban environments. It is observed that when the temperature (27 centigrade) is low, the total

for east beach front

) for February (**Figure 5**).

, and the lowest concentration occurred during South-West

of

report recommend that the TGM ranges from 2.5 to 3.5 ng/m3

gaseous mercury is found to be maximum (8.07 ng/m3

**68**

ing Winter as 5.64 ng/m3

m3

**Figure 4.**

*Trends of TGM concentration and meteorological parameters in the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India.*

Monsoon, which is 3.91 ng/m3 . The highest concentration is observed during Winter and Summer due to long-range transportation of total gaseous mercury compared to autumn and spring seasons. The concentration of total gaseous mercury for the four seasons are arranged in the following order: Winter > Summer > Autumn > Spring for the coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India it is given in **Table 1**.

#### **4.3 Mercury assessment of South Asia and global perspective**

The influence of seasonal shift is very predominant in high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in South India. The meteorological parameters (Wind speed, wind direction, solar radiation, Atmospheric temperature, Relative humidity) and TGM focus were connected to decide the relationship connection between the informational indices of the monitoring sites. Total gaseous mercury concentration varies significantly with wind speed and wind direction and other meteorological parameters, a concentration which changes with the seasons as given in **Table 1**. China and India where less attention of recycling the waste and increased production of coal combustion, metals, chlorine, and cement production. In India imported mercury users of Chlor-alkali plants, thermometers, batteries, Hg-Zinc, Zn-Carbon, fluorescent lamps, thermostat switches, alarm clocks, and hearing aids a total mercury user of 129.32 (Mg) reported by Mukherjee et al. [47]. A total of 6500 tones year−1, adapted from, was measured for mercury emissions from biomass combustion, geogenic activities, and soil/vegetation/ocean emissions. The atmospheric mercury emissions approximately one-third from the sources of anthropogenic emissions similarly, natural emissions 70% and Oceanic emissions from 36% [31]. The primary anthropogenic sources such as combustion of fossil fuels for 24% and coal-burning (21%) at worldwide estimated emissions [5]. The approximately 2320 Mg of mercury is released yearly to the worldwide atmosphere (31%) for the primary sources of anthropogenic emission [8]. The world's leading mercury reservoirs, a unit of the Earth's measurement system and still an ecosystem suffering from anthropogenic activity, encompass the atmosphere (4.4 to 5.3 Gt), the terrestrial environment (in particular soils: 250 to 1000 Gg) and aquatic ecosystems (e.g. oceans: 270 to 450 Gg) [48]. The sustainability of mercury monitoring networks is an essential factor affecting the effectiveness of monitoring efforts.

In a global mercury assessment in 2013, mercury reported to dental usage measured at roughly 270-341 tons in 2010 [49], which represents 10% of global consumption of mercury **Figure 6**. Recently, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) report 2018 to estimate the anthropogenic sources of

anthropogenic sources in 2015 were about 2220 tons. Such sources constitute respectively 25 to 37 percentages of overall worldwide mercury emissions, measured at approximately 2000 tons. The TGM concentration in South Asia (India) are compared with other nations, the TGM levels are similar to the east, and southeast Asian countries and also Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa and North America are the averages and maximum concentration generally smaller. Mercury emission estimated (kg) in global in south Asia was in the second-largest nation in the worldwide it shows **Figure 6** [49]. Recent assessments of emissions of mercury into the environment (the 2010 targets) indicate that the primary anthropogenic sources of mercury pollution into the environment are artisanal and small-scale gold mining and fossil fuels (primarily coal) for power plants and industrial boilers for the generation of heat and electricity. In India majority of mercury releases from coal-burning (89,444 kg) followed by non-ferrous metal production (22,536 kg), waste from products (13,692 kg), cement production (13,421 kg) non-ferrous metal production, combustion of fossil fuels and artisanal small scale gold mining was in less than 1000 kg etc. it shows in **Figure 6** [49]. The most important natural sources and sources of re-emissions assessed within the GMOS project are oceans, which contribute 36% of the emission of mercury, followed by biomass (9%), deserts, metal and non-vegetation areas (7%), tundra and grassland (6%), forest (5%) and evasion after the events of mercury depletion (3%) [25, 40]. The majority of mercury releases worldwide estimated by fossil fuel combustion (11%), small-scale gold mining (5%), non-ferrous metal production (4%), cement production (3%),

#### **Figure 6.**

*Country and sector-wise mercury emission and sources of emission sectors in India and global (data source: UNEP [49]).*

**71**

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal…*

Mukherjee et al. [47] reported the mercury contamination in India its mainly from industrial mercury emissions from coal combustion, the iron and steel industry, non-ferrous metallurgical plants, chloralkali plants, cement industry, waste disposal and other minor sources (i.e. brick production). The largest contributors to the source categories are coal combustion (52%) and waste incineration (32%) as shown in **Figure 6**. In general, TGM concentrations in urban and suburban areas are higher than in rural areas [49]. Mercury emission estimated (kg) in global in south Asia was in the second-largest nation in the worldwide [49]. However, measurements from global urban sites, which are also situated in the same region Asia, showed less than half of the mean concentration from our site. One of the main reasons for our study area is located in the coastal region was that episodically diluting with cleaner marine air and TGM with oceanic bromine will reduce pollution [50]. The possible sources of TGM in India are coal-fired power plants, vehicular emission, manufacture of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, waste incinerating sites, domestic fuel use from residents within the Informal villages around the Landward side, and ocean origin sources. Also, The Asian countries emissions are dominated in the global anthropogenic mercury emissions [21]. Current estimations on mercury emissions and re-emissions of primary natural mercury, including, mercury leakage cases, were measured at 5207 tonnes year−1, which accounts for approximately 70% of the GMOS programme [5]. This pollution estimate is accurately compared to the information given by Cohen et al. Various additional lines of study and measurement are necessary to improve inventories of mercury and improve the

India is known to be the second-highest mercury (Hg) contributor to the global Hg budget for the environment. The present study is focused on the hourly, daily, and seasonal variations of the TGM concentration and meteorological parameters investigated at high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in India. The mean total gaseous mercury concentration in

at Chennai urban region. All peak values appear between 3:00 am, and 8:00 am in all the seasons. This is probably the result of the change in the height of the atmospheric boundary layer that occurs between day and night. This is in large relation to global averages, but slightly less than in semi-industrial/urban areas in India.

The reason behind the higher concentration of total gaseous mercury in Chennai region is the high pollution due to anthropogenic sources, for example, industrial and vehicular emissions, which essentially improves vaporous mercury and also significantly enhances the atmospheric mercury level. Among the seasons, concentrations of TGM were higher during winter season both in Chennai and Kodaikanal indicating dry air with lower humidity aggregates higher pollutants in an urban environment. Total gaseous mercury concentration during the winter season is observed to be maximum in both regions. The average TGM concentrations during four monitoring seasons were ordered as Winter > Summer > Autumn > Spring. The average TGM concentrations in Chennai during the four monitoring seasons were

) > Summer (5.16 ng/m3

, which is higher when compared to Kodaikanal, where it's

. TGM concentrations exhibit an obvious diurnal pattern

) > Autumn (4.59 ng/m3

)

caustic soda production (2%), waste incineration (2%) and pig iron production (1%) [8]. Total mercury emissions are dominant in Asian countries, particularly China and India, and this information on the above factors and detailed estimates

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

ability to assess control options.

**5. Conclusions**

Chennai is 4.68 ng/m3

approximately 1.53 ng/m3

ordered as Winter (5.64 ng/m3

for mercury can be found in AMAP/UNEP [49].

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

caustic soda production (2%), waste incineration (2%) and pig iron production (1%) [8]. Total mercury emissions are dominant in Asian countries, particularly China and India, and this information on the above factors and detailed estimates for mercury can be found in AMAP/UNEP [49].

Mukherjee et al. [47] reported the mercury contamination in India its mainly from industrial mercury emissions from coal combustion, the iron and steel industry, non-ferrous metallurgical plants, chloralkali plants, cement industry, waste disposal and other minor sources (i.e. brick production). The largest contributors to the source categories are coal combustion (52%) and waste incineration (32%) as shown in **Figure 6**. In general, TGM concentrations in urban and suburban areas are higher than in rural areas [49]. Mercury emission estimated (kg) in global in south Asia was in the second-largest nation in the worldwide [49]. However, measurements from global urban sites, which are also situated in the same region Asia, showed less than half of the mean concentration from our site. One of the main reasons for our study area is located in the coastal region was that episodically diluting with cleaner marine air and TGM with oceanic bromine will reduce pollution [50]. The possible sources of TGM in India are coal-fired power plants, vehicular emission, manufacture of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, waste incinerating sites, domestic fuel use from residents within the Informal villages around the Landward side, and ocean origin sources. Also, The Asian countries emissions are dominated in the global anthropogenic mercury emissions [21]. Current estimations on mercury emissions and re-emissions of primary natural mercury, including, mercury leakage cases, were measured at 5207 tonnes year−1, which accounts for approximately 70% of the GMOS programme [5]. This pollution estimate is accurately compared to the information given by Cohen et al. Various additional lines of study and measurement are necessary to improve inventories of mercury and improve the ability to assess control options.

## **5. Conclusions**

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

anthropogenic sources in 2015 were about 2220 tons. Such sources constitute respectively 25 to 37 percentages of overall worldwide mercury emissions, measured at approximately 2000 tons. The TGM concentration in South Asia (India) are compared with other nations, the TGM levels are similar to the east, and southeast Asian countries and also Europe, Sub-Saharan Africa and North America are the averages and maximum concentration generally smaller. Mercury emission estimated (kg) in global in south Asia was in the second-largest nation in the worldwide it shows **Figure 6** [49]. Recent assessments of emissions of mercury into the environment (the 2010 targets) indicate that the primary anthropogenic sources of mercury pollution into the environment are artisanal and small-scale gold mining and fossil fuels (primarily coal) for power plants and industrial boilers for the generation of heat and electricity. In India majority of mercury releases from coal-burning (89,444 kg) followed by non-ferrous metal production (22,536 kg), waste from products (13,692 kg), cement production (13,421 kg) non-ferrous metal production, combustion of fossil fuels and artisanal small scale gold mining was in less than 1000 kg etc. it shows in **Figure 6** [49]. The most important natural sources and sources of re-emissions assessed within the GMOS project are oceans, which contribute 36% of the emission of mercury, followed by biomass (9%), deserts, metal and non-vegetation areas (7%), tundra and grassland (6%), forest (5%) and evasion after the events of mercury depletion (3%) [25, 40]. The majority of mercury releases worldwide estimated by fossil fuel combustion (11%), small-scale gold mining (5%), non-ferrous metal production (4%), cement production (3%),

*Country and sector-wise mercury emission and sources of emission sectors in India and global (data source:* 

**70**

**Figure 6.**

*UNEP [49]).*

India is known to be the second-highest mercury (Hg) contributor to the global Hg budget for the environment. The present study is focused on the hourly, daily, and seasonal variations of the TGM concentration and meteorological parameters investigated at high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) and coastal urban city (Chennai) in India. The mean total gaseous mercury concentration in Chennai is 4.68 ng/m3 , which is higher when compared to Kodaikanal, where it's approximately 1.53 ng/m3 . TGM concentrations exhibit an obvious diurnal pattern at Chennai urban region. All peak values appear between 3:00 am, and 8:00 am in all the seasons. This is probably the result of the change in the height of the atmospheric boundary layer that occurs between day and night. This is in large relation to global averages, but slightly less than in semi-industrial/urban areas in India.

The reason behind the higher concentration of total gaseous mercury in Chennai region is the high pollution due to anthropogenic sources, for example, industrial and vehicular emissions, which essentially improves vaporous mercury and also significantly enhances the atmospheric mercury level. Among the seasons, concentrations of TGM were higher during winter season both in Chennai and Kodaikanal indicating dry air with lower humidity aggregates higher pollutants in an urban environment. Total gaseous mercury concentration during the winter season is observed to be maximum in both regions. The average TGM concentrations during four monitoring seasons were ordered as Winter > Summer > Autumn > Spring. The average TGM concentrations in Chennai during the four monitoring seasons were ordered as Winter (5.64 ng/m3 ) > Summer (5.16 ng/m3 ) > Autumn (4.59 ng/m3 )

> Spring (3.92 ng/m3 ). The average concentration of total gaseous mercury in the high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) for the four seasons are arranged in the following order: Winter (1.61 ng/m3 ) > Autumn (1.53 ng/m3 ) > Summer (1.51 ng/m3 ) > Spring (1.36 ng/m3 ). From the results, it is clear that meteorological parameters play a vital role in the variation of total gaseous mercury. Factors such as the re-emission of concentrated mercury through Earth soils, vertical mixing and long-range transport influenced the seasonal variability of TGM at the monitoring sites. Moreover, it is clear that in the future if these meteorological parameters changes, it will change the concentration of total gaseous mercury in the observation regions. The present study can be extended by quantifying the total mercury emission from the earth systems and its impact on environments and human health in the Chennai urban region. There is a shortage of essential information and pollution factors for Asian countries to complete this analysis to address this situation. Recent work has used TGM and meteorological parameters, although the impact of wind speed, wind direction, and solar radiation on pollutant behaviour are well known, and these factors can be more easily approached in future research.

## **Acknowledgements**

The authors express their gratitude towards The Global Mercury Observation System (GMOS), European Commission, for providing instrumental (Grant Agreement no. 265113) and technical support and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), Chennai, for providing meteorological data.

## **Author details**

Manikanda Bharath Karuppasamy1 \*, Srinivasalu Seshachalam1 , Usha Natesan2 and Karthik Ramasamy3

1 Institute for Ocean Management, Anna University, Chennai 600025, Tamil Nadu, India

2 Centre for Water Resource, Anna University, Chennai 600025, Tamil Nadu, India

3 National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, Chennai 600025, Tamil Nadu, India

\*Address all correspondence to: krmanibharath93@gmail.com

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**73**

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal…*

Rauthe-Schöch, A., Hermann, M., Martinsson, B.G., van Velthoven, P., Bönisch, H., Neumeier, M., Zahn, A., Ziereis, H.: Mercury distribution in the upper troposphere and lowermost stratosphere according to measurements by the IAGOS-CARIBIC observatory: 2014-2016. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 18,

[8] Pirrone N, Stracher GB, Cinnirella S, Feng X, Finkelman RB, Friedli HR, et al. Global mercury emissions to the atmosphere from anthropogenic and natural sources. Atmos. Chem. Phys.

[9] Yi, Hui., Tong, Lei., Lin, Jia-mei., Cai, Qiu-liang., Wang, Ke-qiang., Dai, Xiao-rong., Li, Jian- rong., Chen, Jin-sheng., Xiao, Hang.: "Temporal variation and long–range transport of gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) over a coastal site of East China". Atmos. Res. Volume 233, article id. 104699 (2020). DOI:10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.104699

[10] Cooke, C.A., Martínez-Cortizas, A., Bindler, R., Sexauer Gustin, M.: Environmental archives of atmospheric Hg deposition – A review. Sci. Total Environ. (2019). DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134800

[11] Huan, Zhang., Zhangwei, Wang., Chunjie, Wang., Xiaoshan, Zhang.: Concentrations and gas-particle partitioning of atmospheric reactive mercury at an urban site in Beijing, China. Environ. Pollut.Vol: 249, Page: 13-23 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

envpol.2019.02.064

acp-17-1689-2017.

[12] Jiaoyan, Huang., Matthieu, Miller B., Eric, Edgerton., and Mae Sexauer, Gustin.: "Deciphering potential chemical compounds of gaseous oxidized mercury in Florida, USA". Atmos. Chem. Phys. 17, 1689-1698 (2017). DOI:10.5194/

12329-12343 (2018)

2010;**10**:5951-5964

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

[1] Johannes, Bieser., Hélène, Angot., Franz, Slemr., Lynwill, Martin.: Atmospheric mercury in the

Southern Hemisphere – Part 2: Source apportionment analysis at Cape Point station, South Africa. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 63 (2020). https://doi.org/10.5194/

[2] Lyman, S.N., Cheng, I., Gratz, L.E., Peter, Weiss-Penzias., Leiming, Zhang.: An updated review of atmospheric mercury, Sci. Total Environ. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

[3] Fitzgerald WF, Engstrom DR, Mason RP, Nater EA. The case for atmospheric mercury contamination in remote areas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1998;**32**(1):1-7. DOI: 10.1021/es970284w

[4] Tripathee Lekhendra., Guo Junming., Kang Shichang., Paudyal Rukumesh., Sharma Chhatra Mani., Huang Jie., Chen Pengfei., Sharma Ghimire Prakriti., Sigdel Madan., Sillanpää Mika.: "Measurement of mercury, other trace elements and major ions in wet deposition at Jomsom: The semiarid mountain valley of the Central Himalaya". Atmos. Res. Volume 234, article id. 104691 (2020). DOI:10.1016/j.

[5] UNEP.: Global Mercury Assessment.

[6] Liuwei, Wang., Deyi, Hou., Yining, Cao., Yong, Sik OK., Filip, M.G., Tack Jörg, Rinklebe., David O'Connor.: "Remediation of mercury contaminated

acp-2020-63

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scitotenv.2019.135575.

atmosres.2019.104691

United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva (2018).

soil, water, and air: A review of emerging materials and innovative technologies". Environ. Int. 134, 105281 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

[7] Slemr, F., Weigelt, A., Ebinghaus, R., Bieser, J., Brenninkmeijer, C.A.,

envint.2019.105281

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

## **References**

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

in the following order: Winter (1.61 ng/m3

) > Spring (1.36 ng/m3

> Spring (3.92 ng/m3

(1.51 ng/m3

**72**

**Author details**

India

and Karthik Ramasamy3

**Acknowledgements**

Manikanda Bharath Karuppasamy1

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*, Srinivasalu Seshachalam1

). The average concentration of total gaseous mercury in the

) > Autumn (1.53 ng/m3

). From the results, it is clear that meteorological

) > Summer

high-altitude background station (Kodaikanal) for the four seasons are arranged

parameters play a vital role in the variation of total gaseous mercury. Factors such as the re-emission of concentrated mercury through Earth soils, vertical mixing and long-range transport influenced the seasonal variability of TGM at the monitoring sites. Moreover, it is clear that in the future if these meteorological parameters changes, it will change the concentration of total gaseous mercury in the observation regions. The present study can be extended by quantifying the total mercury emission from the earth systems and its impact on environments and human health in the Chennai urban region. There is a shortage of essential information and pollution factors for Asian countries to complete this analysis to address this situation. Recent work has used TGM and meteorological parameters, although the impact of wind speed, wind direction, and solar radiation on pollutant behaviour are well known, and these factors can be more easily approached in future research.

The authors express their gratitude towards The Global Mercury Observation

System (GMOS), European Commission, for providing instrumental (Grant Agreement no. 265113) and technical support and Central Pollution Control Board

(CPCB), Chennai, for providing meteorological data.

1 Institute for Ocean Management, Anna University, Chennai 600025, Tamil Nadu,

2 Centre for Water Resource, Anna University, Chennai 600025, Tamil Nadu, India

3 National Centre for Sustainable Coastal Management, Ministry of Environment,

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Forest and Climate Change, Chennai 600025, Tamil Nadu, India

\*Address all correspondence to: krmanibharath93@gmail.com

, Usha Natesan2

[1] Johannes, Bieser., Hélène, Angot., Franz, Slemr., Lynwill, Martin.: Atmospheric mercury in the Southern Hemisphere – Part 2: Source apportionment analysis at Cape Point station, South Africa. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 63 (2020). https://doi.org/10.5194/ acp-2020-63

[2] Lyman, S.N., Cheng, I., Gratz, L.E., Peter, Weiss-Penzias., Leiming, Zhang.: An updated review of atmospheric mercury, Sci. Total Environ. (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. scitotenv.2019.135575.

[3] Fitzgerald WF, Engstrom DR, Mason RP, Nater EA. The case for atmospheric mercury contamination in remote areas. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1998;**32**(1):1-7. DOI: 10.1021/es970284w

[4] Tripathee Lekhendra., Guo Junming., Kang Shichang., Paudyal Rukumesh., Sharma Chhatra Mani., Huang Jie., Chen Pengfei., Sharma Ghimire Prakriti., Sigdel Madan., Sillanpää Mika.: "Measurement of mercury, other trace elements and major ions in wet deposition at Jomsom: The semiarid mountain valley of the Central Himalaya". Atmos. Res. Volume 234, article id. 104691 (2020). DOI:10.1016/j. atmosres.2019.104691

[5] UNEP.: Global Mercury Assessment. United Nations Environment Programme, Geneva (2018).

[6] Liuwei, Wang., Deyi, Hou., Yining, Cao., Yong, Sik OK., Filip, M.G., Tack Jörg, Rinklebe., David O'Connor.: "Remediation of mercury contaminated soil, water, and air: A review of emerging materials and innovative technologies". Environ. Int. 134, 105281 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. envint.2019.105281

[7] Slemr, F., Weigelt, A., Ebinghaus, R., Bieser, J., Brenninkmeijer, C.A.,

Rauthe-Schöch, A., Hermann, M., Martinsson, B.G., van Velthoven, P., Bönisch, H., Neumeier, M., Zahn, A., Ziereis, H.: Mercury distribution in the upper troposphere and lowermost stratosphere according to measurements by the IAGOS-CARIBIC observatory: 2014-2016. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 18, 12329-12343 (2018)

[8] Pirrone N, Stracher GB, Cinnirella S, Feng X, Finkelman RB, Friedli HR, et al. Global mercury emissions to the atmosphere from anthropogenic and natural sources. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010;**10**:5951-5964

[9] Yi, Hui., Tong, Lei., Lin, Jia-mei., Cai, Qiu-liang., Wang, Ke-qiang., Dai, Xiao-rong., Li, Jian- rong., Chen, Jin-sheng., Xiao, Hang.: "Temporal variation and long–range transport of gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) over a coastal site of East China". Atmos. Res. Volume 233, article id. 104699 (2020). DOI:10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.104699

[10] Cooke, C.A., Martínez-Cortizas, A., Bindler, R., Sexauer Gustin, M.: Environmental archives of atmospheric Hg deposition – A review. Sci. Total Environ. (2019). DOI: https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.134800

[11] Huan, Zhang., Zhangwei, Wang., Chunjie, Wang., Xiaoshan, Zhang.: Concentrations and gas-particle partitioning of atmospheric reactive mercury at an urban site in Beijing, China. Environ. Pollut.Vol: 249, Page: 13-23 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. envpol.2019.02.064

[12] Jiaoyan, Huang., Matthieu, Miller B., Eric, Edgerton., and Mae Sexauer, Gustin.: "Deciphering potential chemical compounds of gaseous oxidized mercury in Florida, USA". Atmos. Chem. Phys. 17, 1689-1698 (2017). DOI:10.5194/ acp-17-1689-2017.

[13] Poissant L, Pilote M, Beauvais C, Constant P, Zhang HH. A year of continuous measurements of three atmospheric mercury species (GEM, RGM and Hgp) in southern Québec, Canada. Atmos. Environ. 2005;**39**:1275-1287

[14] Cheng, Z., Tang, Y., Li, E., Wu, Q., Wang, L., Liu, K., Wang, S., Yongmei Huang., Lei Duan.: Mercury accumulation in soil from atmospheric deposition in temperate steppe of Inner Mongolia, China. Environ. Pollut. Vol: 258, Page: 113692 (2019). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113692

[15] Guor-Cheng Fang, Kai-Hsiang Tsai, Chao-Yang Huang, Kuang-Pu OuYang, You-Fu Xiao, Wen-Chuan Huang, Yuan-Jie Zhuang.: "Seasonal variations of ambient air mercury species nearby an airport". Atmos. Res. 202, Pages 96-104 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. atmosres.2017.11.008

[16] Fang F, Wang Q, Li J. Urban environmental mercury in Changchun, a metropolitan city in Northeastern China: source, cycle, and fate. Sci. Total Environ. vol. 2004;**330**:159-170

[17] Syed, Abdul Rehman Khan., Yu, Zhang., Anil, Kumar., Edmundas, Zavadskas., Dalia, Streimikiene., "Measuring the impact of renewable energy, public health expenditure, logistics, and environmental performance on sustainable economic growth," Sustainable Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 28(4), pages 833-843, (2020), DOI: 10.1002/ sd.2034.

[18] Weiss-Penzias P, Jaffe D, Swartzendruber P, Hafner W, Chand D, Prestbo E. Quantifying Asian and biomass burning sources of mercury using the Hg/ CO ratio in pollution plumes observed at the Mount Bachelor Observatory. Atmos. Environ. 2007;**41**:4366-4379

[19] Jun, Zhou., Buyun, Du., Lihai, Shang., Zhangwei, Wang., Hongbiao, Cui., Xingjun, Fan., & Jing, Zhou.: Mercury fluxes, budgets, and pools in forest ecosystems of China, A review. Crit. Rev. Eng., Sci. Technol. (2019). DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2019.1661176

[20] Liu L, Zhang W, Lu Q, et al. Variations in the Sensible Heating of Tibetan Plateau and Related Effects on Atmospheric Circulation Over South Asia. Asia-Pacific. J. Atmos. Sci. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/ s13143-020-00207-0

[21] Pacyna EG, Pacyna JM, Sundseth K, Munthe J, Kindbom K, Wilson S, et al. Global emission of mercury to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources in 2005 and projections to 2020. Atmos. Environ. 2010;**44**:2487-2499

[22] Horowitz HM, Jacob DJ, Zhang Y, Dibble TS, Slemr F, Amos HM, et al. A new mechanism for atmospheric mercury redox chemistry: Implications for the global mercury budget. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2017;**17**:6353-6371

[23] Streets DG, Horowitz HM, Jacob DJ, Lu Z, Levin L, TerSchure AFH, et al. Total mercury released to the environment by human activities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017;**51**:5969-5977

[24] Amos HM, Jacob DJ, Streets DG, Sunderland EM. Legacy impacts of all-time anthropogenic emissions on the global mercury cycle. Global Biogeochem. Cycles. 2013;**27**(2):410- 421. DOI: 10.1002/gbc.20040

[25] Ghazvini MV, Ashrafi K, Shafiepour Motlagh M, et al. Simulation of atmospheric mercury dispersion and deposition in Tehran city. Air Qual. Atmos. Health. 2020;**13**:529-541 https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00813-x

[26] Lynam M, Dvonch JT, Barres J, et al. Atmospheric wet deposition of

**75**

(2016)

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal…*

the Popocatépetl volcano. Environ. Geochem Health. 2020. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1007/s10653-020-00610-6

Gaseous elemental mercury

[35] Karthik R, Paneerselvam A, Ganguly D, Hariharan G, Srinivasalu S, Purvaja R, et al. Temporal variability of atmospheric Total Gaseous Mercury and its correlation with meteorological parameters at a high-altitude station of the South India. Atmos. Pollut. Res.

[36] Schmolke SR, Schroeder WH, Kock HH, Schneeberger D, Munthe J, Ebinghaus R. Simultaneous measurements of total gaseous mercury at four sites on an 800 km transect: spatial distribution and short-time variability of total gaseous mercury over central Europe. Atmos. Environ. 1999;**33**:1725-1733

[37] Fu, X.W., Feng, X., Shang, L.H., Wang, S.F., and Zhang, H.: Two years of measurements of atmospheric total gaseous mercury (TGM) at a remote site in Mt. Changbai area, Northeastern China. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12, 4215-

[38] Nguyen HL, Leemakers M, Kurunczi S, Bozo L, Baeyens W. Mercury distribution and speciation in Lake Balaton, Hungary. Sci. Total Environ. vol. 2005;**340**:231-246

16, 5623-5639 (2016)

[39] Fu, X., Marusczak, N., Heimburger, L.R., Sauvage, B., Gheusi, F., Prestbo, E.M., and Sonke J.E.: Atmospheric mercury speciation dynamics at the high-altitude Pic du Midi Observatory, Southern France. Atmos. Chem. Phys.

[40] Outridge, P.M., Mason, R.P., Wang, F., Guerrero, S., Heimbürger-Boavida,

Sci. 2007;**19**:176-180

2016;**8**(1):164-173

4226 (2012)

[34] Wang Z, Chen Z, Duan N, Zhang X.

concentration in atmosphere at urban and remote sites in China. J. Environ.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

mercury to the Athabasca Oil Sands Region, Alberta, Canada. Air. Qual. Atmos. Health. 2018;**11**:83-93 https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11869-017-0524-6

[27] Slemr F, Brunke EG, Ebinghaus R, Kuss J. Worldwide trend of atmospheric mercury since 1995, Atmos. Chem.

Bencardino M, D'Amore F, Carbone S, Cinnirella F, et al. Atmospheric mercury concentrations observed at groundbased monitoring sites globally distributed in the framework of the GMOS network. Atmos. Chem. Phys.

[29] Fu XW, Feng XB, Dong ZQ, Yin RS, Wang JX, Yang ZR, et al. Atmospheric gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) concentrations and mercury depositions at a high-altitude mountain peak in south China. Atmos. Chem. Phys.

Kim MY, Kang CH, Shim SG. Mercury in air in an area impacted by strong industrial activities. Chemosphere.

[31] Pacyna, J.M., Travnikov, O., Simone,

F.D., Hedgecock, I.M., Sundseth, K., Pacyna, E.G., Steenhuisen, F., Pirrone, N., Munthe, J., Kindbom, K.: Current and future levels of mercury atmospheric pollution on a global scale. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 12495-12511

[32] Pandey SK, Kim KH, Yim UH, Jung MC, Kang CH. Airborne mercury pollution from a large oil spill accident on the west coast of Korea. J. Hazard.

[33] Schiavo B, Morton-Bermea O, Salgado-Martinez E, et al. Evaluation of possible impact on human health of atmospheric mercury emanations from

Mater. 2009;**164**:380-384

Phys. 2011;**11**:4779-4787

2016;**16**:11915-11935

2010;**10**:2425-2437

2008;**71**:2017-2029

[30] Nguyen HT, Kim KH,

[28] Sprovieri F, Pirrone N,

*Characterization of Atmospheric Mercury in the High-Altitude Background Station and Coastal… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94543*

mercury to the Athabasca Oil Sands Region, Alberta, Canada. Air. Qual. Atmos. Health. 2018;**11**:83-93 https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11869-017-0524-6

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

[19] Jun, Zhou., Buyun, Du., Lihai, Shang., Zhangwei, Wang., Hongbiao, Cui., Xingjun, Fan., & Jing, Zhou.: Mercury fluxes, budgets, and pools in forest ecosystems of China, A review. Crit. Rev. Eng., Sci. Technol. (2019). DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2019.1661176

[20] Liu L, Zhang W, Lu Q, et al. Variations in the Sensible Heating of Tibetan Plateau and Related Effects on Atmospheric Circulation Over South Asia. Asia-Pacific. J. Atmos. Sci. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/

[21] Pacyna EG, Pacyna JM, Sundseth K, Munthe J, Kindbom K, Wilson S, et al. Global emission of mercury to the atmosphere from anthropogenic sources in 2005 and projections to 2020. Atmos.

[22] Horowitz HM, Jacob DJ, Zhang Y, Dibble TS, Slemr F, Amos HM, et al. A new mechanism for atmospheric mercury redox chemistry: Implications for the global mercury budget. Atmos.

[23] Streets DG, Horowitz HM, Jacob DJ, Lu Z, Levin L, TerSchure AFH, et al. Total mercury released to the environment by human activities. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017;**51**:5969-5977

[24] Amos HM, Jacob DJ, Streets DG, Sunderland EM. Legacy impacts of all-time anthropogenic emissions on the global mercury cycle. Global Biogeochem. Cycles. 2013;**27**(2):410-

[25] Ghazvini MV, Ashrafi K, Shafiepour

421. DOI: 10.1002/gbc.20040

Motlagh M, et al. Simulation of atmospheric mercury dispersion and deposition in Tehran city. Air Qual. Atmos. Health. 2020;**13**:529-541 https:// doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00813-x

[26] Lynam M, Dvonch JT, Barres J, et al. Atmospheric wet deposition of

s13143-020-00207-0

Environ. 2010;**44**:2487-2499

Chem. Phys. 2017;**17**:6353-6371

[13] Poissant L, Pilote M,

2005;**39**:1275-1287

atmosres.2017.11.008

[16] Fang F, Wang Q, Li J. Urban

Environ. vol. 2004;**330**:159-170

[17] Syed, Abdul Rehman Khan., Yu, Zhang., Anil, Kumar., Edmundas, Zavadskas., Dalia, Streimikiene., "Measuring the impact of renewable energy, public health expenditure, logistics, and environmental

performance on sustainable economic growth," Sustainable Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 28(4), pages 833-843, (2020), DOI: 10.1002/

Swartzendruber P, Hafner W, Chand D, Prestbo E. Quantifying Asian and biomass burning sources of mercury using the Hg/ CO ratio in pollution plumes observed at the Mount

Bachelor Observatory. Atmos. Environ.

[18] Weiss-Penzias P, Jaffe D,

2007;**41**:4366-4379

environmental mercury in Changchun, a metropolitan city in Northeastern China: source, cycle, and fate. Sci. Total

Beauvais C, Constant P, Zhang HH. A year of continuous measurements of three atmospheric mercury species (GEM, RGM and Hgp) in southern Québec, Canada. Atmos. Environ.

[14] Cheng, Z., Tang, Y., Li, E., Wu, Q., Wang, L., Liu, K., Wang, S., Yongmei Huang., Lei Duan.: Mercury accumulation in soil from atmospheric deposition in temperate steppe of Inner Mongolia, China. Environ. Pollut. Vol: 258, Page: 113692 (2019). https://doi. org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113692

[15] Guor-Cheng Fang, Kai-Hsiang Tsai, Chao-Yang Huang, Kuang-Pu OuYang, You-Fu Xiao, Wen-Chuan Huang, Yuan-Jie Zhuang.: "Seasonal variations of ambient air mercury species nearby an airport". Atmos. Res. 202, Pages 96-104 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

**74**

sd.2034.

[27] Slemr F, Brunke EG, Ebinghaus R, Kuss J. Worldwide trend of atmospheric mercury since 1995, Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2011;**11**:4779-4787

[28] Sprovieri F, Pirrone N, Bencardino M, D'Amore F, Carbone S, Cinnirella F, et al. Atmospheric mercury concentrations observed at groundbased monitoring sites globally distributed in the framework of the GMOS network. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2016;**16**:11915-11935

[29] Fu XW, Feng XB, Dong ZQ, Yin RS, Wang JX, Yang ZR, et al. Atmospheric gaseous elemental mercury (GEM) concentrations and mercury depositions at a high-altitude mountain peak in south China. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010;**10**:2425-2437

[30] Nguyen HT, Kim KH, Kim MY, Kang CH, Shim SG. Mercury in air in an area impacted by strong industrial activities. Chemosphere. 2008;**71**:2017-2029

[31] Pacyna, J.M., Travnikov, O., Simone, F.D., Hedgecock, I.M., Sundseth, K., Pacyna, E.G., Steenhuisen, F., Pirrone, N., Munthe, J., Kindbom, K.: Current and future levels of mercury atmospheric pollution on a global scale. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 12495-12511 (2016)

[32] Pandey SK, Kim KH, Yim UH, Jung MC, Kang CH. Airborne mercury pollution from a large oil spill accident on the west coast of Korea. J. Hazard. Mater. 2009;**164**:380-384

[33] Schiavo B, Morton-Bermea O, Salgado-Martinez E, et al. Evaluation of possible impact on human health of atmospheric mercury emanations from the Popocatépetl volcano. Environ. Geochem Health. 2020. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1007/s10653-020-00610-6

[34] Wang Z, Chen Z, Duan N, Zhang X. Gaseous elemental mercury concentration in atmosphere at urban and remote sites in China. J. Environ. Sci. 2007;**19**:176-180

[35] Karthik R, Paneerselvam A, Ganguly D, Hariharan G, Srinivasalu S, Purvaja R, et al. Temporal variability of atmospheric Total Gaseous Mercury and its correlation with meteorological parameters at a high-altitude station of the South India. Atmos. Pollut. Res. 2016;**8**(1):164-173

[36] Schmolke SR, Schroeder WH, Kock HH, Schneeberger D, Munthe J, Ebinghaus R. Simultaneous measurements of total gaseous mercury at four sites on an 800 km transect: spatial distribution and short-time variability of total gaseous mercury over central Europe. Atmos. Environ. 1999;**33**:1725-1733

[37] Fu, X.W., Feng, X., Shang, L.H., Wang, S.F., and Zhang, H.: Two years of measurements of atmospheric total gaseous mercury (TGM) at a remote site in Mt. Changbai area, Northeastern China. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12, 4215- 4226 (2012)

[38] Nguyen HL, Leemakers M, Kurunczi S, Bozo L, Baeyens W. Mercury distribution and speciation in Lake Balaton, Hungary. Sci. Total Environ. vol. 2005;**340**:231-246

[39] Fu, X., Marusczak, N., Heimburger, L.R., Sauvage, B., Gheusi, F., Prestbo, E.M., and Sonke J.E.: Atmospheric mercury speciation dynamics at the high-altitude Pic du Midi Observatory, Southern France. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 16, 5623-5639 (2016)

[40] Outridge, P.M., Mason, R.P., Wang, F., Guerrero, S., Heimbürger-Boavida,

L.E.: Updated Global and Oceanic Mercury Budgets for the United Nations Global Mercury Assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2018). https://doi. org/10.1021/acs.est.8b01246.

[41] Lee DS, Dollard GJ, Pepler S. Gasphase mercury in the atmosphere of the United Kingdom. Atmos. Environ. 1998;**32**:855-864

[42] Zhang, Y., Khan, S.A.R., Kumar, A., Golpîra, H., Sharif, A., Is tourism really affected by logistical operations and environmental degradation? An empirical study from the perspective of Thailand. J. Clean. Prod. 227, 158-166, 2019.

[43] Lee T, Shin U, Park S. Atmospheric Structure for Convective Development in the Events of Cloud Clusters over the Korean Peninsula. Asia-Pacific. J. Atmos. Sci. 2020. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1007/s13143-020-00211-4

[44] Syed Abdul Rehman Khan., Arshian, Sharif., Hêriş, Golpîra., Anil, Kumar., "A green ideology in Asian emerging economies: From environmental policy and sustainable development," Sustainable Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 27(6), pages 1063-1075, (2019). DOI: 10.1002/sd.1958.

[45] Ci ZJ, Zhang XS, Wang ZW, Niu ZC, Diao XY, Wang SW. Distribution and air-sea exchange of mercury (Hg) in the Yellow Sea. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2011;**11**:2881-2892

[46] Penuelas J, Sardans J. Developing holistic models of the structure and function of the soil/plant/ atmosphere continuum. Plant Soil. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11104-020-04641-x

[47] Mukherjee, A.B., Bhattacharya, P., Sarkar, A., and Zevenhoven, R.: Mercury emissions from industrial sources in India and its effects in the environment, Springer, New York, USA, chap. 4, 81-112 (2009). DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-93958-2\_4

[48] Obrist D, Johnson DW, Edmonds RL. Effects of vegetation type on mercury concentrations and pools in two adjacent coniferous and deciduous forests. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2012;**175**(1):68-77. DOI: 10.1002/ jpln.201000415

[49] AMAP/UNEP.: Technical Background Report for the Global Mercury Assessment2013, Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, Oslo, Norway/ UNEP Chemicals Branch, Geneva, Switzerland. vi + 263 pp, (2013).

[50] Zhu J, Wang T, Talbot R, Mao H, Hall CB, Yang X, et al. Characteristics of atmospheric Total Gaseous Mercury (TGM) observed in urban Nanjing. China. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2012;**12**:12103-12118 https://doi. org/10.5194/acp-12-12103-2012

**77**

**Chapter 5**

**Abstract**

Health Impacts of Air Pollution

Urban air pollution has become a salient environmental issue in many Asian countries due to their rapid industrial development, urbanization, and motorization. Human-induced air pollution has been and continues to be considered a major environmental and public health issue. Its severity lies in the fact that high levels of pollutants are produced in environments where damage to human to concentration, duration of exposure health and welfare is more likely. This potential is what makes anthropogenic air pollution an important concern. Extreme air pollution episodes were reported for the Meuse Valley, Belgium, in 1930; Donora, PA, and the Monongehela River Valley in 1948; and London in 1952. These episodes are significant in that they provided solid scientific documentation that exposure to elevated ambient pollutant levels can cause acute illness and even death. The most devastating events contributed to important efforts to control ambient air pollution. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) assessment concluded that outdoor air pollution is carcinogenic to humans, with the particulate matter component of air pollution mostly associated with increasing cancer incidence especially lung cancer. Pollutant effects typically occur in some target organs. These can be straightforward; i.e. pollutants come into close contact with the affected organ.. Such is the case for eye and respiratory irritation. Effects may be indirect. For example, Pollutants can enter the bloodstream from the lungs or gastrointestinal system through the respiratory route. Effects may then be distant from the immediate organ of contact. A target organ can have no immediate and intimate contact with atmospheric contaminants.. The primary organs or target organs are the eyes

*Muhammad Ikram Bin A Wahab*

and the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.

pollution and the occurrence of urban heat islands.

Cardiovascular Disease

**1. Introduction**

**Keywords:** Urban Air Pollution, Human Health Effects, Respiratory and

Air pollution is the presence of unwanted substances in the air in sufficient quantities to produce adverse effects. Undesirable substances can affect human health, vegetation, human property or the global environment including creating esthetic slurs in the form of brown or foggy air or offensive odors. Outdoor or ambient air pollution has been recognized as one of the major concerns that have high potential for its deleterious effects on health. Increased urbanization, human activities and changing urban setting in the country have resulted in elevated air

The classification of air pollutants is based mainly on the sources producing pollution. There are four main air pollution sources namely major, area, mobile and natural sources. Major sources include the emissions from power stations,

## **Chapter 5** Health Impacts of Air Pollution

*Muhammad Ikram Bin A Wahab*

## **Abstract**

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

environment, Springer, New York, USA, chap. 4, 81-112 (2009). DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-93958-2\_4

Edmonds RL. Effects of vegetation type on mercury concentrations and pools in two adjacent coniferous and deciduous forests. J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2012;**175**(1):68-77. DOI: 10.1002/

[48] Obrist D, Johnson DW,

[49] AMAP/UNEP.: Technical Background Report for the Global Mercury Assessment2013, Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme, Oslo, Norway/ UNEP Chemicals Branch, Geneva, Switzerland. vi + 263 pp, (2013).

[50] Zhu J, Wang T, Talbot R, Mao H, Hall CB, Yang X, et al. Characteristics

of atmospheric Total Gaseous Mercury (TGM) observed in urban Nanjing. China. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2012;**12**:12103-12118 https://doi. org/10.5194/acp-12-12103-2012

jpln.201000415

L.E.: Updated Global and Oceanic Mercury Budgets for the United Nations Global Mercury Assessment. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2018). https://doi. org/10.1021/acs.est.8b01246.

[41] Lee DS, Dollard GJ, Pepler S. Gasphase mercury in the atmosphere of the United Kingdom. Atmos. Environ.

[42] Zhang, Y., Khan, S.A.R., Kumar, A., Golpîra, H., Sharif, A., Is tourism really affected by logistical operations and environmental degradation? An empirical study from the perspective of Thailand. J. Clean. Prod. 227, 158-166,

[43] Lee T, Shin U, Park S. Atmospheric Structure for Convective Development in the Events of Cloud Clusters over the Korean Peninsula. Asia-Pacific. J. Atmos. Sci. 2020. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1007/s13143-020-00211-4

[44] Syed Abdul Rehman Khan., Arshian, Sharif., Hêriş, Golpîra., Anil, Kumar., "A green ideology in Asian emerging economies: From environmental policy and sustainable development," Sustainable Development, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., vol. 27(6), pages 1063-1075, (2019).

[45] Ci ZJ, Zhang XS, Wang ZW, Niu ZC, Diao XY, Wang SW. Distribution and air-sea exchange of mercury (Hg) in the Yellow Sea. Atmos. Chem. Phys.

[46] Penuelas J, Sardans J. Developing holistic models of the structure and function of the soil/plant/ atmosphere continuum. Plant Soil. 2020. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/

[47] Mukherjee, A.B., Bhattacharya, P., Sarkar, A., and Zevenhoven, R.: Mercury emissions from industrial sources in India and its effects in the

DOI: 10.1002/sd.1958.

2011;**11**:2881-2892

s11104-020-04641-x

1998;**32**:855-864

2019.

**76**

Urban air pollution has become a salient environmental issue in many Asian countries due to their rapid industrial development, urbanization, and motorization. Human-induced air pollution has been and continues to be considered a major environmental and public health issue. Its severity lies in the fact that high levels of pollutants are produced in environments where damage to human to concentration, duration of exposure health and welfare is more likely. This potential is what makes anthropogenic air pollution an important concern. Extreme air pollution episodes were reported for the Meuse Valley, Belgium, in 1930; Donora, PA, and the Monongehela River Valley in 1948; and London in 1952. These episodes are significant in that they provided solid scientific documentation that exposure to elevated ambient pollutant levels can cause acute illness and even death. The most devastating events contributed to important efforts to control ambient air pollution. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) assessment concluded that outdoor air pollution is carcinogenic to humans, with the particulate matter component of air pollution mostly associated with increasing cancer incidence especially lung cancer. Pollutant effects typically occur in some target organs. These can be straightforward; i.e. pollutants come into close contact with the affected organ.. Such is the case for eye and respiratory irritation. Effects may be indirect. For example, Pollutants can enter the bloodstream from the lungs or gastrointestinal system through the respiratory route. Effects may then be distant from the immediate organ of contact. A target organ can have no immediate and intimate contact with atmospheric contaminants.. The primary organs or target organs are the eyes and the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.

**Keywords:** Urban Air Pollution, Human Health Effects, Respiratory and Cardiovascular Disease

## **1. Introduction**

Air pollution is the presence of unwanted substances in the air in sufficient quantities to produce adverse effects. Undesirable substances can affect human health, vegetation, human property or the global environment including creating esthetic slurs in the form of brown or foggy air or offensive odors. Outdoor or ambient air pollution has been recognized as one of the major concerns that have high potential for its deleterious effects on health. Increased urbanization, human activities and changing urban setting in the country have resulted in elevated air pollution and the occurrence of urban heat islands.

The classification of air pollutants is based mainly on the sources producing pollution. There are four main air pollution sources namely major, area, mobile and natural sources. Major sources include the emissions from power stations,

refineries, petrochemicals, manure industries, metalworking and other industrial facilities, and municipal incineration. Indoor sources include household cleaning operations, printing facilities and gas stations. Mobile sources include motor vehicles, cars, rail lines, airways and others. Last but not least, natural sources include physical disasters such as forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dust storms, and agricultural burning [1].

Particulate matter air pollution less than 2.5 μm has received great international attention due to its diverse contribution to the global burden of disease. Study done by Brauer et al [2] mentioned that majority of the planet still resides in areas where the World Health Organization Air Quality Guidelines of 10 μg/m3 (annual) and 25 μg/m3 (24hrs) is exceeded. Ground level measurement of PM2.5 or lower are still limited in most of the places in the world. Therefore, studies are required to evaluate and provide insight in high risk as to the exposure and risk as many of the form of air pollution are beyond the control of individual and require policy at national and international levels.

Studies over the past two decades have assessed the relationship between size distribution of particulate matter and trace metal concentrations in urban areas. In the past, numerous researchers in Europe have carried out experiments to investigate particle-based metal particle size distribution [3–5].

The inorganic components constitute a small portion by mass of the particulates; however, it contains some trace elements such as As, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb and Se which are human or animal carcinogens even in trace amounts [6, 7]. The high level of Pb can induce severe neurological and hematologic effects on the unprotected population particularly in children, whereas both Cd and Ni are known to cause cancercausing effects on humans by inhalation. Workplace exposure to Cd is an important risk factor for chronic pulmonary diseases [8]. Cr (VI) have been recognized to cause toxicity and carcinogenicity in the bronchial tree [9, 10]. Exposure to Mn is associated with an increase in neurotoxic deficiencies [11]. Elevated levels of Cu may cause respiratory irritation [10, 12].

PAHs have attracted a substantial amount of attention due to their persistent, bio-accumulative, carcinogenic and mutagenic properties related to health problem such as cataracts, kidney and liver damage, and jaundice [13]. The maximum concentrations of airborne PAHs are typically occur in the urban environment due to increased vehicle traffic and the spread of air pollutants. Given the high urban population density, the risk from human exposure to airborne PAHs in highest [14].

Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD) 2015 indicated that ambient particulate matter pollution accounted for 4.2 million deaths and 103 million healthy life-years lost in 2015, representing 7.6% of total global mortality and making it the fifthranked global risk factor.

## **2. Particulate matter**

The term particulate matter (PM) or atmospheric aerosols is a mixture of solid particles and/or liquid droplet that may vary in concentration, composition and also size distribution. Aerosols can be defined as suspensions of solid or liquid in a gas. Therefore, aerosols include both the particle and the gas in which they are suspended. Although aerosol and particle are different, they are often used interchangeably throughout the literature to refer to the particle only.

Aerosol particulates in the atmosphere come from a wide mixture of natural and anthropogenic sources. Primary particulates are released directly as liquids or solids from sources such as biomass combustion, incomplete fossil fuel combustion, volcanic eruptions and suspension of road, ground and mineral dust, sea salt

**79**

*Health Impacts of Air Pollution*

generally called "modes" [17].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

and biological materials caused by wind or traffic. Secondary particulates, on the other hand, are formed by the conversion of gas into particulates in the atmosphere. Primary gaseous species might undergo chemical reaction to produce low-volatility products. Then, these products partitions to the particulate phase, i.e. new particles

Small aerosol particles predominantly contribute to number concentrations; however they only play a smaller role for the volume distribution. On the other hand, larger particles play a role for the volume distribution but do not contribute substantially to the number concentration [16]. Particles are conventionally divided into different size of fractions; based on the physical and chemical processes involved in the particle formation and growth. The different size of fractions is

The nucleation (or ultrafine) mode resides in the range below 0.02 μm of particle diameter and usually presents its maximum number-density around 5-15 nm of particle diameter. H2SO4, NH3 and H2O are examples of precursor gases to form new particles by homogenous nucleation in the ambient atmosphere. However, due to the condensation by other condensing gases, organic and inorganic components, the newly formed particles rapidly grow bigger. These particles have hours lifetime in the atmosphere as they rapidly coagulate with larger particles or grow into larger sizes due to condensation. Classical nucleation theory shows that the nucleation highly depends on the concentrations of the gaseous precursors, relative humidity and temperature. In particular, the nucleation is favored by decreases in the tem-

Aitken mode particles range from 0.02 to 0.1 μm and originate either from primary particles, natural and anthropogenic, or by growth of nucleation mode particles. Secondary Aitken mode particles are likely to be formed by coagulation of ultrafine particles, by condensation and by liquid phase reactions. Combustion process is a primary source that has very large emissions of Aitken mode particles. Aitken mode particles are present at relatively stable concentration in the atmosphere; indicating a long residence time of Aitken particles at ambient atmosphere. The accumulation mode covers the range between 0.1 and up to 1 μm. Aitken mode particles have a tendency to grow to accumulation mode particles due to coagulation and liquid phase reactions occurring in cloud droplets. Hoppel et al. [19] stated that the mass transfer by condensation and/or nucleation/coagulation is not enough to cause any significant change in particles size compared with the observed growth.

Particulate pollution includes particulate matter with a diameter of 10 micrometers (μm) or less, referred to as PM10, and extremely fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers (μm) or less. Particles contain tiny liquid or solid droplets which may be inhaled and cause adverse health effects. PM10 when inhale can enter the lungs and the bloodstream. Fine particulate matter, PM2.5, represents

There is consistent evidence for the relationship between atmospheric particulate matter and public health outcomes for adverse health effects [20]. The range of effects is extensive, including effects on the respiratory and cardiovascular systems that extend to children and adults in the general population [20–22], but also

The risk for various outcomes has been shown to increase with exposure and there is little evidence for a threshold below which no adverse health effects would be anticipated [20]. In one WHO report [23, 24], the importance to public health

are formed by nucleation and condensation of gaseous precursors [15].

perature and/or increases in the relative humidity [18].

**3. Health effects of particulate matter**

a greater health risk (**Table 1**) [1].

including lung cancer [21, 22].

#### *Health Impacts of Air Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

agricultural burning [1].

and international levels.

respiratory irritation [10, 12].

ranked global risk factor.

**2. Particulate matter**

25 μg/m3

refineries, petrochemicals, manure industries, metalworking and other industrial facilities, and municipal incineration. Indoor sources include household cleaning operations, printing facilities and gas stations. Mobile sources include motor vehicles, cars, rail lines, airways and others. Last but not least, natural sources include physical disasters such as forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dust storms, and

Particulate matter air pollution less than 2.5 μm has received great international attention due to its diverse contribution to the global burden of disease. Study done by Brauer et al [2] mentioned that majority of the planet still resides in areas where

limited in most of the places in the world. Therefore, studies are required to evaluate and provide insight in high risk as to the exposure and risk as many of the form of air pollution are beyond the control of individual and require policy at national

Studies over the past two decades have assessed the relationship between size distribution of particulate matter and trace metal concentrations in urban areas. In the past, numerous researchers in Europe have carried out experiments to investi-

The inorganic components constitute a small portion by mass of the particulates; however, it contains some trace elements such as As, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni, Pb and Se which are human or animal carcinogens even in trace amounts [6, 7]. The high level of Pb can induce severe neurological and hematologic effects on the unprotected population particularly in children, whereas both Cd and Ni are known to cause cancercausing effects on humans by inhalation. Workplace exposure to Cd is an important risk factor for chronic pulmonary diseases [8]. Cr (VI) have been recognized to cause toxicity and carcinogenicity in the bronchial tree [9, 10]. Exposure to Mn is associated with an increase in neurotoxic deficiencies [11]. Elevated levels of Cu may cause

PAHs have attracted a substantial amount of attention due to their persistent, bio-accumulative, carcinogenic and mutagenic properties related to health problem such as cataracts, kidney and liver damage, and jaundice [13]. The maximum concentrations of airborne PAHs are typically occur in the urban environment due to increased vehicle traffic and the spread of air pollutants. Given the high urban population density, the risk from human exposure to airborne PAHs in highest [14]. Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD) 2015 indicated that ambient particulate matter pollution accounted for 4.2 million deaths and 103 million healthy life-years lost in 2015, representing 7.6% of total global mortality and making it the fifth-

The term particulate matter (PM) or atmospheric aerosols is a mixture of solid particles and/or liquid droplet that may vary in concentration, composition and also size distribution. Aerosols can be defined as suspensions of solid or liquid in a gas. Therefore, aerosols include both the particle and the gas in which they are suspended. Although aerosol and particle are different, they are often used inter-

Aerosol particulates in the atmosphere come from a wide mixture of natural and anthropogenic sources. Primary particulates are released directly as liquids or solids from sources such as biomass combustion, incomplete fossil fuel combustion, volcanic eruptions and suspension of road, ground and mineral dust, sea salt

changeably throughout the literature to refer to the particle only.

(24hrs) is exceeded. Ground level measurement of PM2.5 or lower are still

(annual) and

the World Health Organization Air Quality Guidelines of 10 μg/m3

gate particle-based metal particle size distribution [3–5].

**78**

and biological materials caused by wind or traffic. Secondary particulates, on the other hand, are formed by the conversion of gas into particulates in the atmosphere. Primary gaseous species might undergo chemical reaction to produce low-volatility products. Then, these products partitions to the particulate phase, i.e. new particles are formed by nucleation and condensation of gaseous precursors [15].

Small aerosol particles predominantly contribute to number concentrations; however they only play a smaller role for the volume distribution. On the other hand, larger particles play a role for the volume distribution but do not contribute substantially to the number concentration [16]. Particles are conventionally divided into different size of fractions; based on the physical and chemical processes involved in the particle formation and growth. The different size of fractions is generally called "modes" [17].

The nucleation (or ultrafine) mode resides in the range below 0.02 μm of particle diameter and usually presents its maximum number-density around 5-15 nm of particle diameter. H2SO4, NH3 and H2O are examples of precursor gases to form new particles by homogenous nucleation in the ambient atmosphere. However, due to the condensation by other condensing gases, organic and inorganic components, the newly formed particles rapidly grow bigger. These particles have hours lifetime in the atmosphere as they rapidly coagulate with larger particles or grow into larger sizes due to condensation. Classical nucleation theory shows that the nucleation highly depends on the concentrations of the gaseous precursors, relative humidity and temperature. In particular, the nucleation is favored by decreases in the temperature and/or increases in the relative humidity [18].

Aitken mode particles range from 0.02 to 0.1 μm and originate either from primary particles, natural and anthropogenic, or by growth of nucleation mode particles. Secondary Aitken mode particles are likely to be formed by coagulation of ultrafine particles, by condensation and by liquid phase reactions. Combustion process is a primary source that has very large emissions of Aitken mode particles. Aitken mode particles are present at relatively stable concentration in the atmosphere; indicating a long residence time of Aitken particles at ambient atmosphere. The accumulation mode covers the range between 0.1 and up to 1 μm. Aitken mode particles have a tendency to grow to accumulation mode particles due to coagulation and liquid phase reactions occurring in cloud droplets. Hoppel et al. [19] stated that the mass transfer by condensation and/or nucleation/coagulation is not enough to cause any significant change in particles size compared with the observed growth.

## **3. Health effects of particulate matter**

Particulate pollution includes particulate matter with a diameter of 10 micrometers (μm) or less, referred to as PM10, and extremely fine particulate matter with a diameter of 2.5 micrometers (μm) or less. Particles contain tiny liquid or solid droplets which may be inhaled and cause adverse health effects. PM10 when inhale can enter the lungs and the bloodstream. Fine particulate matter, PM2.5, represents a greater health risk (**Table 1**) [1].

There is consistent evidence for the relationship between atmospheric particulate matter and public health outcomes for adverse health effects [20]. The range of effects is extensive, including effects on the respiratory and cardiovascular systems that extend to children and adults in the general population [20–22], but also including lung cancer [21, 22].

The risk for various outcomes has been shown to increase with exposure and there is little evidence for a threshold below which no adverse health effects would be anticipated [20]. In one WHO report [23, 24], the importance to public health


**Table 1.**

*Penetrability according to particle size.*

of the long-term effects of particulate matter exposure outweighs the importance of short-term effects. The short-term effects of exposure have been recognized in many time series studies, and short-term (24-hour) and long-term (yearly average) guidelines are suggested [24]. PM2.5 and PM10 are recommended for assessment and control as fine and coarse particles have diverse sources and can have multiple effects. With respect to ultrafine particulate matter, there is insufficient information to support a quantitative assessment of the potential health effects of exposure [25].

Particle size and surface area are important characteristics from a toxicological point of view. Pope & Dockery [21]; Schlesinger et al. [22] recently review the current understanding of particulate matter, its size and its health effects.

Study done by Pope & Dockery [21]; Schlesinger et al. [22] proved that the relationship between fine particulate matter, PM2.5, and most health effects is greater than between PM10 and health effects. Ultrafine particulate matter contributes little to the mass concentration of particulate matter; however, it affects the surface in large numbers and is of interest to toxicological studies [22]. Study done by Nel et al. [26] concluded that as the size of a particle decrease, its surface area increases, thus allowing a greater proportion of its atoms or molecules to be displayed on the surface. Furthermore, particle size is crucial for penetration and deposition efficiency into human lungs, since ultrafine particles ability to penetrate the membranes of the respiratory tract and enter the blood circulation.

Particulate organic matter in ambient air is a complex mixture of chemicals, i.e. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified some PAHs, i.e. benzo[a]pyrene, as human carcinogens [27]. Another group that has gained interest in recent years is metals. Schlesinger et al. [22] have summarized current knowledge regarding trace metals and their health impact. The assessment of the risk associated with exposure to PAHs is still a challenge. PAHs present in ambient air mainly as a complex mixture and the interactions among components may lead to additively, synergistic or antagonistic effects. In addition, a study conducted by Topinka et al. [28] shows that organic matter extracted from PM2.5 are likely to induce DNA adducts and oxidative DNA damage in in-vitro cell-free assay experiments.

The toxicological findings strongly suggest that transition metals such as V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu and Zn are components in PM with toxic capability based on their potential for oxidative activity and the production of reactive oxygen species [22]. Soil dust is composed of crust elements (Si, Ca, Al and Mg) and is existent in ambient PM2.5, but bigger segments are present in coarse mode.

**81**

**4. Trace metals**

*Health Impacts of Air Pollution*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

Windblown soils, dust, at least in rural areas, are not considered a significant health risk however natural crusty materials may be contaminated with road dust generated by moving vehicles. Contaminants may contain a range of constituents, including PAHs and various metals that can alter the toxicology of crust particles. Several studies indicated that particles produced from burning of biomass for domestic heating have increased and become one of the major sources of PM2.5 in Europe and other parts of the world [29, 30]. Incomplete combustion of biomass produces a multitude of different organic species as well as trace metals. In a assessment of some epidemiological studies carried out in areas where wood smoke is prevalent. Boman et al. [31] concluded that particulate matter from wood smoke appears to be at least as deleterious as particulate matter from other sources.

In 2016, air pollution was ranked sixth in terms of global burden of disease and that 7.5% of all deaths were attributable to ambient air pollution (4.1 million deaths) [32]. Globally, ambient air pollution is responsible for about 27.5% of all lower respiratory infection deaths and 27% of all deaths due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [32]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about 26% of deaths due to ambient air pollution in 2012 occurred in South East Asia [33].

South East Asia population is not only exposed to local sources of air pollutants (for example, industrial and traffic related air pollutants) but it also exposed to regional smoke from the seasonal forest fires (or 'haze') that occur in Sumatra and Kalimantan. The fine particulate pollution from these forest and peat fires can reach hazardous levels for extended periods of time, posing severe health risks to millions of people across Malaysia. These forest fires are also a major cause of transboundary air pollution throughout South East Asia. The forest fires occur in the dry season, (known as the South-west monsoon season, April to September) and tend to be more severe in the El Nino years. During this monsoon season, the prevailing wind direction is south westerly, and the smoke from forest fires in Sumatra are commonly transported towards Malaysia. The most severe haze episode from these forest fires occurred in 1997. Since then, there have been severe haze episodes from forest fires every two to three years, for example, in 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 [34]. The last major transboundary haze episode occurring in 2015 has been estimated to have resulted in 91,600 excess deaths in

Indonesia, 6,500 deaths in Malaysia and 2,200 deaths in Singapore [35].

subsequent cardiovascular disease and death [37].

During the haze episodes, the main air pollutant of concern is PM2.5. The health impacts of PM2.5 are related to concentration, duration of exposure and individual susceptibility. PM2.5 pollution is causally related to cardiovascular (myocardial infarction, hypertension, heart failure, arrhythmias) and respiratory disease (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer [32]. Long-term exposure to PM2.5 has also been linked to adverse birth outcomes, childhood respiratory disease and possibly neurodevelopment and cognitive function, and diabetes [36, 37]. PM2.5 is also associated with systemic inflammation with associated increases in acute phase proteins such as C-reactive protein and fibrinogen [38]. These biomarkers have been consistently linked to

Toxic heavy metals are one of the major hazardous that affects us today. Atmospheric deposition of toxic heavy metals has stimulated profound research all over the world due to effects on living organisms. Toxic metals like lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As) and chromium (Cr) can essentially attack specific areas in the human body upon exposure [39]. Their dispersal and transport through

#### *Health Impacts of Air Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

7–11 μm Passage into nasal cavity 4.7–7 μm Passage into larynx

3.3–4.7 μm Passage into trachea bronchial area 2.1–3.3 μm Secondary bronchial area passage 1.1–2.1 μm Terminal bronchial area passage 0.65–1.1 μm Bronchioles penetrability 0.43–0.65 μm Alveolar penetrability

**Particle size Penetration degree in human respiratory system** 11 μm Passage into nostrils and upper respiratory tract

of the long-term effects of particulate matter exposure outweighs the importance of short-term effects. The short-term effects of exposure have been recognized in many time series studies, and short-term (24-hour) and long-term (yearly average) guidelines are suggested [24]. PM2.5 and PM10 are recommended for assessment and control as fine and coarse particles have diverse sources and can have multiple effects. With respect to ultrafine particulate matter, there is insufficient information to support a quantitative assessment of the potential health effects of

Particle size and surface area are important characteristics from a toxicological point of view. Pope & Dockery [21]; Schlesinger et al. [22] recently review the cur-

Particulate organic matter in ambient air is a complex mixture of chemicals, i.e. polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified some PAHs, i.e. benzo[a]pyrene, as human carcinogens [27]. Another group that has gained interest in recent years is metals. Schlesinger et al. [22] have summarized current knowledge regarding trace metals and their health impact. The assessment of the risk associated with exposure to PAHs is still a challenge. PAHs present in ambient air mainly as a complex mixture and the interactions among components may lead to additively, synergistic or antagonistic effects. In addition, a study conducted by Topinka et al. [28] shows that organic matter extracted from PM2.5 are likely to induce DNA adducts and oxidative DNA

The toxicological findings strongly suggest that transition metals such as V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu and Zn are components in PM with toxic capability based on their potential for oxidative activity and the production of reactive oxygen species [22]. Soil dust is composed of crust elements (Si, Ca, Al and Mg) and is existent in ambi-

Study done by Pope & Dockery [21]; Schlesinger et al. [22] proved that the relationship between fine particulate matter, PM2.5, and most health effects is greater than between PM10 and health effects. Ultrafine particulate matter contributes little to the mass concentration of particulate matter; however, it affects the surface in large numbers and is of interest to toxicological studies [22]. Study done by Nel et al. [26] concluded that as the size of a particle decrease, its surface area increases, thus allowing a greater proportion of its atoms or molecules to be displayed on the surface. Furthermore, particle size is crucial for penetration and deposition efficiency into human lungs, since ultrafine particles ability to penetrate

rent understanding of particulate matter, its size and its health effects.

the membranes of the respiratory tract and enter the blood circulation.

damage in in-vitro cell-free assay experiments.

ent PM2.5, but bigger segments are present in coarse mode.

**80**

exposure [25].

**Table 1.**

*Penetrability according to particle size.*

Windblown soils, dust, at least in rural areas, are not considered a significant health risk however natural crusty materials may be contaminated with road dust generated by moving vehicles. Contaminants may contain a range of constituents, including PAHs and various metals that can alter the toxicology of crust particles.

Several studies indicated that particles produced from burning of biomass for domestic heating have increased and become one of the major sources of PM2.5 in Europe and other parts of the world [29, 30]. Incomplete combustion of biomass produces a multitude of different organic species as well as trace metals. In a assessment of some epidemiological studies carried out in areas where wood smoke is prevalent. Boman et al. [31] concluded that particulate matter from wood smoke appears to be at least as deleterious as particulate matter from other sources.

In 2016, air pollution was ranked sixth in terms of global burden of disease and that 7.5% of all deaths were attributable to ambient air pollution (4.1 million deaths) [32]. Globally, ambient air pollution is responsible for about 27.5% of all lower respiratory infection deaths and 27% of all deaths due to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease [32]. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that about 26% of deaths due to ambient air pollution in 2012 occurred in South East Asia [33].

South East Asia population is not only exposed to local sources of air pollutants (for example, industrial and traffic related air pollutants) but it also exposed to regional smoke from the seasonal forest fires (or 'haze') that occur in Sumatra and Kalimantan. The fine particulate pollution from these forest and peat fires can reach hazardous levels for extended periods of time, posing severe health risks to millions of people across Malaysia. These forest fires are also a major cause of transboundary air pollution throughout South East Asia. The forest fires occur in the dry season, (known as the South-west monsoon season, April to September) and tend to be more severe in the El Nino years. During this monsoon season, the prevailing wind direction is south westerly, and the smoke from forest fires in Sumatra are commonly transported towards Malaysia. The most severe haze episode from these forest fires occurred in 1997. Since then, there have been severe haze episodes from forest fires every two to three years, for example, in 2005, 2006, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 [34]. The last major transboundary haze episode occurring in 2015 has been estimated to have resulted in 91,600 excess deaths in Indonesia, 6,500 deaths in Malaysia and 2,200 deaths in Singapore [35].

During the haze episodes, the main air pollutant of concern is PM2.5. The health impacts of PM2.5 are related to concentration, duration of exposure and individual susceptibility. PM2.5 pollution is causally related to cardiovascular (myocardial infarction, hypertension, heart failure, arrhythmias) and respiratory disease (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and lung cancer [32]. Long-term exposure to PM2.5 has also been linked to adverse birth outcomes, childhood respiratory disease and possibly neurodevelopment and cognitive function, and diabetes [36, 37]. PM2.5 is also associated with systemic inflammation with associated increases in acute phase proteins such as C-reactive protein and fibrinogen [38]. These biomarkers have been consistently linked to subsequent cardiovascular disease and death [37].

## **4. Trace metals**

Toxic heavy metals are one of the major hazardous that affects us today. Atmospheric deposition of toxic heavy metals has stimulated profound research all over the world due to effects on living organisms. Toxic metals like lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As) and chromium (Cr) can essentially attack specific areas in the human body upon exposure [39]. Their dispersal and transport through


#### **Table 2.**

*Share of releases of trace metals from natural sources.*

the atmosphere can be worsened by anthropogenic and natural phenomena. High levels of these trace metals in air can cause ecotoxic effects on plants, animal as well as humans.

In the air, trace metals are combined with sediment dust and respirable airborne particulate matter [40]. They can be released from air through precipitation or direct dry deposits in various environmental compartments near or away from their source. An in-depth investigation of the levels of trace metals in the atmosphere is therefore both essential and fundamental to ensure a more secure environment.

Naturally trace metals can be in the form of vapor ions dissolved in water and in the form of minerals or salts in rock, soil and sand. Pacyna [41], stated biogenic sources represent over half of the Hg and Mo emitted to the atmosphere, and approximately 30–50% of the As, Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn freed (**Table 2**). Soils can be responsible for substantial releases of trace metals to the atmosphere.

Trace metals are not only brought into the environment from natural sources, they are also introduced through human activities [42]. Waste incineration sites, agricultural runoff, vehicle emissions and urban effluents release trace metals to the environment [43]. Industrial sources can pose a significant threat, particularly in densely populated areas. Combustion of fossil fuels from stationary sources can be important in dispersing trace metals into the atmosphere [44].

### **5. Metal toxicity**

A toxic material is a substance that has an adverse effect on health. Many chemicals could be classed as toxic, but some are more toxic than others. When metals bind to the sulfhydryl groups in proteins, they may move essential elements, interrupt function or obstruct the activity of the sulfhydryl group leading to toxicity [45]. Trace metals like mercury, lead, arsenic, zinc, copper, gold, cobalt and cadmium can be highly toxic and easily accessed by living organisms. Plants may exhibit different signs of toxicity according to type of metal and plant. Generally, in humans, heavy metal toxicity may range from reproductive defects to lung damage [46, 47] while in plants, they may cause damage to root systems, disrupt the proper functioning of the stomata and inhibit growth [48, 49],

Over the last 50 years, there has been a rapid rise in the number of significant trace elements associated with water pollution incidents. The release of cadmium into the Jinstu River in Japan resulted in serious bone damage [50].

Even chromium is an essential micronutrient, chromatic salts can have serious effects on the skin, nasal septum and lungs [46]. Homeostatic mechanisms generally work to control gastrointestinal absorption, so entering the body through other routes bypasses this control. Another example is Zn, whereby inhalation of zinc oxide vapors can cause an allergic reaction leading to metal smoke fever [51].

**83**

*Health Impacts of Air Pollution*

and pneumonia [52].

chemistry [53].

**6. Trace elements in whole blood**

pregnancy and developmental outcome [55, 56].

**7. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs)**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

Large number of metals such as Cd, Pb and Hg have no recognized biological significance in human and exposure of small amounts may be toxic [52]. "Trace metals" is a broad collective term that includes any metal that is toxic and has a relatively high specific density as well [52]. Common indications of intoxication (Cd, Pb, As, Hg, Zn, Cu and Al) encompass gastrointestinal disturbances, diarrhea, stomach ulser, hemoglobinuria, ataxia, paralysis, vomiting and seizures, depression

Metals intrude with the biochemistry of the organism during common metabolism processes. In the acidic middle of the stomach, they transform into stable oxidation states and merging with the body's biomolecules like proteins and enzymes to establish solid and stable chemical bonds, replacement of hydrogen or essential

Metallic ions in the body's metallo-enzymes can be easily substitute by another similar sized metallic ion. Occasionally, the enzymes of a whole sequence coexist in the form of a single multi-enzymatic complex hence replacing an essential metal by an interfering metal blocks the biological reaction of the enzyme function. One example is the substitution of Zn by Cd and caused detrimental effects on body

Therefore, the metal remains incorporated in the tissue and will effect in a variety of bio-malfunctions, not all evenly severe [52]. The most toxic forms of interference metals are their most stable oxidation states, since these very stable forms of biotoxic compounds are difficult to isolate with detoxification therapies [52].

Heavy metals and trace elements can be measured in whole, serum, urine and other tissues. In blood, metals are distributed between the non-cellular (plasma/ serum) and intra-cellular compartment (predominantly erythrocytes). For examples, lead (Pb) is known to have a strong affinity for erythrocyte [54]. Thus Pb is measured primarily in whole blood. Levels of metals in blood and serum have been extensively studied in different samples to identify the exposure of human population. Pregnant mother and their growing fetuses are especially vulnerable to exposure to pollutants. Air and water pollution, exposure to toxic elements, and exposure to persistent organic compounds have been associated with adverse

In addition to that, trace elements are also required in the body for its normal function. Macrominerals refer to minerals that adults need in quantities greater than 100 mg/day. The principal (macro-nutrients) consist of sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. Trace elements (trace mineral) are commonly stipulated as minerals required by adults between 1 and 100 mg/day. The group of trace minerals is composed of iron, copper and zinc. Ultra-trace minerals are defined as minerals that are needed in quantities under 1 mg/day. These consist of chromium, manganese, fluoride, iodide, cobalt, selenium, silicon, arsenic, boron, vanadium, nickel, cadmium, lithium, lead and molybdenum [57].

PAHs comprise diverse groups of compounds whose structure comprises at least two benzene groups and assorted functional groups that may include more than one element. They can be eliminated or converted to even more toxic compounds via chemical reactions such as sulfonation, nitration or photooxidation. For example,

metals in an enzyme and, therefore, inhibit its functioning [52].

#### *Health Impacts of Air Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

**Natural sources % released into the atmosphere**

Biogenic • 50% Hg, Mo

Volcanic Gas • 40–50% of Cd and Hg

*Share of releases of trace metals from natural sources.*

Sea aerosols • 10% various heavy metals

the atmosphere can be worsened by anthropogenic and natural phenomena. High levels of these trace metals in air can cause ecotoxic effects on plants, animal as well

• 30–50% As, Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn

• 20–40% of the As, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Sb

particulate matter [40]. They can be released from air through precipitation or direct dry deposits in various environmental compartments near or away from their source. An in-depth investigation of the levels of trace metals in the atmosphere is therefore both essential and fundamental to ensure a more secure environment. Naturally trace metals can be in the form of vapor ions dissolved in water and in the form of minerals or salts in rock, soil and sand. Pacyna [41], stated biogenic sources represent over half of the Hg and Mo emitted to the atmosphere, and approximately 30–50% of the As, Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn freed (**Table 2**). Soils can

be responsible for substantial releases of trace metals to the atmosphere.

important in dispersing trace metals into the atmosphere [44].

functioning of the stomata and inhibit growth [48, 49],

into the Jinstu River in Japan resulted in serious bone damage [50].

Trace metals are not only brought into the environment from natural sources, they are also introduced through human activities [42]. Waste incineration sites, agricultural runoff, vehicle emissions and urban effluents release trace metals to the environment [43]. Industrial sources can pose a significant threat, particularly in densely populated areas. Combustion of fossil fuels from stationary sources can be

A toxic material is a substance that has an adverse effect on health. Many chemicals could be classed as toxic, but some are more toxic than others. When metals bind to the sulfhydryl groups in proteins, they may move essential elements, interrupt function or obstruct the activity of the sulfhydryl group leading to toxicity [45]. Trace metals like mercury, lead, arsenic, zinc, copper, gold, cobalt and cadmium can be highly toxic and easily accessed by living organisms. Plants may exhibit different signs of toxicity according to type of metal and plant. Generally, in humans, heavy metal toxicity may range from reproductive defects to lung damage [46, 47] while in plants, they may cause damage to root systems, disrupt the proper

Over the last 50 years, there has been a rapid rise in the number of significant trace elements associated with water pollution incidents. The release of cadmium

Even chromium is an essential micronutrient, chromatic salts can have serious effects on the skin, nasal septum and lungs [46]. Homeostatic mechanisms generally work to control gastrointestinal absorption, so entering the body through other routes bypasses this control. Another example is Zn, whereby inhalation of zinc oxide vapors can cause an allergic reaction leading to metal smoke fever [51].

In the air, trace metals are combined with sediment dust and respirable airborne

**82**

as humans.

**Table 2.**

**5. Metal toxicity**

Large number of metals such as Cd, Pb and Hg have no recognized biological significance in human and exposure of small amounts may be toxic [52]. "Trace metals" is a broad collective term that includes any metal that is toxic and has a relatively high specific density as well [52]. Common indications of intoxication (Cd, Pb, As, Hg, Zn, Cu and Al) encompass gastrointestinal disturbances, diarrhea, stomach ulser, hemoglobinuria, ataxia, paralysis, vomiting and seizures, depression and pneumonia [52].

Metals intrude with the biochemistry of the organism during common metabolism processes. In the acidic middle of the stomach, they transform into stable oxidation states and merging with the body's biomolecules like proteins and enzymes to establish solid and stable chemical bonds, replacement of hydrogen or essential metals in an enzyme and, therefore, inhibit its functioning [52].

Metallic ions in the body's metallo-enzymes can be easily substitute by another similar sized metallic ion. Occasionally, the enzymes of a whole sequence coexist in the form of a single multi-enzymatic complex hence replacing an essential metal by an interfering metal blocks the biological reaction of the enzyme function. One example is the substitution of Zn by Cd and caused detrimental effects on body chemistry [53].

Therefore, the metal remains incorporated in the tissue and will effect in a variety of bio-malfunctions, not all evenly severe [52]. The most toxic forms of interference metals are their most stable oxidation states, since these very stable forms of biotoxic compounds are difficult to isolate with detoxification therapies [52].

## **6. Trace elements in whole blood**

Heavy metals and trace elements can be measured in whole, serum, urine and other tissues. In blood, metals are distributed between the non-cellular (plasma/ serum) and intra-cellular compartment (predominantly erythrocytes). For examples, lead (Pb) is known to have a strong affinity for erythrocyte [54]. Thus Pb is measured primarily in whole blood. Levels of metals in blood and serum have been extensively studied in different samples to identify the exposure of human population. Pregnant mother and their growing fetuses are especially vulnerable to exposure to pollutants. Air and water pollution, exposure to toxic elements, and exposure to persistent organic compounds have been associated with adverse pregnancy and developmental outcome [55, 56].

In addition to that, trace elements are also required in the body for its normal function. Macrominerals refer to minerals that adults need in quantities greater than 100 mg/day. The principal (macro-nutrients) consist of sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus. Trace elements (trace mineral) are commonly stipulated as minerals required by adults between 1 and 100 mg/day. The group of trace minerals is composed of iron, copper and zinc. Ultra-trace minerals are defined as minerals that are needed in quantities under 1 mg/day. These consist of chromium, manganese, fluoride, iodide, cobalt, selenium, silicon, arsenic, boron, vanadium, nickel, cadmium, lithium, lead and molybdenum [57].

## **7. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs)**

PAHs comprise diverse groups of compounds whose structure comprises at least two benzene groups and assorted functional groups that may include more than one element. They can be eliminated or converted to even more toxic compounds via chemical reactions such as sulfonation, nitration or photooxidation. For example,

under certain conditions, traces of nitric acid may convert some PAHs into nitro-PAHs [58].

Organic compounds can be released from their sources in gas phase or can be associated with particles by nucleation and condensation, forming particulate matter. PAHs can be found in the particulate and gaseous phases, depending on their volatility. Low molecular weight PAHs (LMW PAHs) with two or three aromatic rings are released in the gas phase. High molecular weight PAHs (HMW PAHs) of five or more rings are generated in the particulate phase.

The particulate form of PAHs is first found in the high-temperature gas phase. Nevertheless, when the temperature drops, the gas-phase PAHs adsorb or settle on the fly ash particles. Smaller particles offer more surface area for PAH adsorption. Environmental temperature is very important for the distribution of PAH gas particles. PAH can be formed in any incomplete combustion or high temperature pyrolytic process involving fossil fuels, or more generally, materials containing C and H [59].

The mechanisms by which PAHs are formed and emitted can be divided into two processes: pyrolysis and pyrosynthesis in any fuel combustion system. Pyrolysis is the development of smaller, unstable fragments from a heated an organic compound. Fragments are extremely reactive free radicals whose average life expectancy is very short. Through recombinant reaction, these free radicals result in more stable PAHs and this process is known as pyrosynthesis. For instance, B (a) P and other PAHs are formed by pyrolysis of methane, acetylene, butadiene and other compounds [60].

The formation of PAHs in pyrolysis oils was attributed by Diels-Alder responses of alkenes to form cyclic alkenes. In cyclic alkene dehydrogenation responses, stable rings of aromatic compounds from which PAH compounds are formed. Nonetheless, complex hydrocarbons need not necessarily decompose into small fragments prior to the recombinant process. Compounds with multiple rings are susceptible to partial cracking. Moreover, phenyl radicals also play a significant role in addition to intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen transfers at intermediate constituent in high-temperature process which result in PAH formation [60].

## **8. Toxicity and carcinogenicity of PAHs**

Elevated levels of PAHs in air cause numerous adverse effects on different types of organisms, inclusive plants, birds and mammals. A few studies have shown a significant positive association between lung cancer mortality in humans and PAH exposure from coke oven exhaust, cover tar and tobacco smoke. Concurrently, certain PAHs were shown to react with near ambient levels of NO2 + HNO3 and with O3 in synthetic atmospheres, to form directly mutagenic nitro-PAH and oxy-PAH [61].

Some of the PAHs and their metabolites can induce stable genetic alterations that have the potential to irreversibly alter the control of cell division. This may result in tumor growth and cancer in fish and mammals. Due to solubility of PAHs in fatty tissue, they may bioaccumulate and transferred in the food chain. Certain PAHs have been specified as possible or probable cancer causing in humans, notably benzo (a) anthracene, chrysene, benzo (b and k) fluoranthene, benzo (a) pyrene and others [62]. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that individuals exposed to mixtures containing PAHs have increased lung cancer rates [63].

It is known that the lower molecular weight PAHs is less harmful. They are predominantly discovered in the vapor phase in an urban air where they can react with other pollutants (O3 and NOx) to form more toxic derivatives. For example, PAHs react with NO3 will form carcinogenic nitro-derivatives [64].

**85**

were decrease [78].

*Health Impacts of Air Pollution*

their toxicity [65].

PAHs [67].

studies [69].

**9. PAHs in whole blood**

results in critical mutagenic changes [72].

exposure over about a month [74].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

Particles smaller than 10 μm are more potent to incorporate larger quantities (unit mass) of PAHs because of their large area-to-volume ratio. That is a major concern because smaller particles are retained by the lung. In the human respiratory system, particles greater than 10 μm in diameter could not reach the thorax. Particles between 2.1 and 10 μm are preferably trapped by the pharynx, trachea and bronchi while particles less than 2.1 μm can reach bronchial and terminal alveoli. Consequently, harmful physical action of inhalable particles (i.e., development of lung emphysema) is ascertained with chemical impact as a result of

Humans may be exposed to PAHs by inhaling contaminated air or cigarette smoke, ingesting food with PAHs, and skin absorption of soil or materials that contain PAHs. Ingestion and inhalation are the two principal routes of exposure to the general population [27, 66]. For some professions, such as coal tar roofers and coking plant workers, skin absorption may be the primary route of exposure to

Once PAHs have penetrated the human body, they undergo a series of biotransformation processes. During Stage I metabolism, PAHs are oxidized by cytochrome P450 enzymes to develop reactive epoxy intermediates, followed by hydrolysis to form hydroxylated derivatives (OH-PAHs). In Phase II metabolism, PAHs-OH are combined with glucuronic acid and/or sulphate to increase metabolite solubility in water and for ease of removal by urine, bile or stool [68]. Urinary OH-PAHs have been used as biomarkers to assess human exposure to PAHs, with 1-hydroxypyrene (1-PYR) as the most commonly used indicator in biomonitoring

Blood measurement for DNA adducts of PAHs have been employed as a markers for PAHs exposure in human populations. Environmental monitoring documents the presence of a environmental pollutants, but the biological consequences of exposure to the organism are found only intracellularly [70, 71]. Protein-adduct formation is considered a surrogate of DNA adducts formation, but only the latter

Benzo(a)pyrene B(a)P is a potent carcinogen that have been used a proxy marker for PAHs in environmental sample. Individual metabolism transforms B(a) P to benzo epoxide (a) pyrene diol (BPDE), that establish adducts with DNA and proteins and hydrolysed to BPDE tetrols that are eliminating from the individual body [73]. The concentrations of human serum albumin (HSA) is more than a thousand fold greater than that in DNA in human blood and unlike DNA adducts, HSA adducts are not repair. Therefore, BDPE-HSA should be relatively stable biomarker of B(a)P exposure, with human half life of 20 days that ensures integration B(a)P

Over the years many studies have contributed to validation of PAH-DNA adduct measurements in human DNA using immunoassays, the most-sensitive of which is the chemiluminescence immunoassay (CIA) [75]. A cohort study of US military soldiers displaced from an area with a clean environmental zone to a much more polluted area showed a substantial increment in the levels of HAP-DNA adducts in blood cells for each individual [76, 77]. In addition, a tremendously higher rate of PAH-DNA adducts for blood cells was observed in young adults sampled in Mexico City during the dry season when atmospheric PAH concentrations were higher, in comparison to the rainy season, when PAH levels

#### *Health Impacts of Air Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

five or more rings are generated in the particulate phase.

**8. Toxicity and carcinogenicity of PAHs**

nitro-PAHs [58].

and H [59].

compounds [60].

under certain conditions, traces of nitric acid may convert some PAHs into

Organic compounds can be released from their sources in gas phase or can be associated with particles by nucleation and condensation, forming particulate matter. PAHs can be found in the particulate and gaseous phases, depending on their volatility. Low molecular weight PAHs (LMW PAHs) with two or three aromatic rings are released in the gas phase. High molecular weight PAHs (HMW PAHs) of

The particulate form of PAHs is first found in the high-temperature gas phase. Nevertheless, when the temperature drops, the gas-phase PAHs adsorb or settle on the fly ash particles. Smaller particles offer more surface area for PAH adsorption. Environmental temperature is very important for the distribution of PAH gas particles. PAH can be formed in any incomplete combustion or high temperature pyrolytic process involving fossil fuels, or more generally, materials containing C

The mechanisms by which PAHs are formed and emitted can be divided into two

The formation of PAHs in pyrolysis oils was attributed by Diels-Alder responses

Elevated levels of PAHs in air cause numerous adverse effects on different types of organisms, inclusive plants, birds and mammals. A few studies have shown a significant positive association between lung cancer mortality in humans and PAH exposure from coke oven exhaust, cover tar and tobacco smoke. Concurrently, certain PAHs were shown to react with near ambient levels of NO2 + HNO3 and with O3 in synthetic atmospheres, to form directly mutagenic nitro-PAH and oxy-PAH [61]. Some of the PAHs and their metabolites can induce stable genetic alterations that have the potential to irreversibly alter the control of cell division. This may result in tumor growth and cancer in fish and mammals. Due to solubility of PAHs in fatty tissue, they may bioaccumulate and transferred in the food chain. Certain PAHs have been specified as possible or probable cancer causing in humans, notably benzo (a) anthracene, chrysene, benzo (b and k) fluoranthene, benzo (a) pyrene and others [62]. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated that individuals exposed to mixtures containing PAHs have increased lung cancer rates [63]. It is known that the lower molecular weight PAHs is less harmful. They are predominantly discovered in the vapor phase in an urban air where they can react with other pollutants (O3 and NOx) to form more toxic derivatives. For example,

PAHs react with NO3 will form carcinogenic nitro-derivatives [64].

of alkenes to form cyclic alkenes. In cyclic alkene dehydrogenation responses, stable rings of aromatic compounds from which PAH compounds are formed. Nonetheless, complex hydrocarbons need not necessarily decompose into small fragments prior to the recombinant process. Compounds with multiple rings are susceptible to partial cracking. Moreover, phenyl radicals also play a significant role in addition to intermolecular and intramolecular hydrogen transfers at intermediate constituent in high-temperature process which result in PAH formation [60].

processes: pyrolysis and pyrosynthesis in any fuel combustion system. Pyrolysis is the development of smaller, unstable fragments from a heated an organic compound. Fragments are extremely reactive free radicals whose average life expectancy is very short. Through recombinant reaction, these free radicals result in more stable PAHs and this process is known as pyrosynthesis. For instance, B (a) P and other PAHs are formed by pyrolysis of methane, acetylene, butadiene and other

**84**

Particles smaller than 10 μm are more potent to incorporate larger quantities (unit mass) of PAHs because of their large area-to-volume ratio. That is a major concern because smaller particles are retained by the lung. In the human respiratory system, particles greater than 10 μm in diameter could not reach the thorax. Particles between 2.1 and 10 μm are preferably trapped by the pharynx, trachea and bronchi while particles less than 2.1 μm can reach bronchial and terminal alveoli. Consequently, harmful physical action of inhalable particles (i.e., development of lung emphysema) is ascertained with chemical impact as a result of their toxicity [65].

Humans may be exposed to PAHs by inhaling contaminated air or cigarette smoke, ingesting food with PAHs, and skin absorption of soil or materials that contain PAHs. Ingestion and inhalation are the two principal routes of exposure to the general population [27, 66]. For some professions, such as coal tar roofers and coking plant workers, skin absorption may be the primary route of exposure to PAHs [67].

Once PAHs have penetrated the human body, they undergo a series of biotransformation processes. During Stage I metabolism, PAHs are oxidized by cytochrome P450 enzymes to develop reactive epoxy intermediates, followed by hydrolysis to form hydroxylated derivatives (OH-PAHs). In Phase II metabolism, PAHs-OH are combined with glucuronic acid and/or sulphate to increase metabolite solubility in water and for ease of removal by urine, bile or stool [68]. Urinary OH-PAHs have been used as biomarkers to assess human exposure to PAHs, with 1-hydroxypyrene (1-PYR) as the most commonly used indicator in biomonitoring studies [69].

## **9. PAHs in whole blood**

Blood measurement for DNA adducts of PAHs have been employed as a markers for PAHs exposure in human populations. Environmental monitoring documents the presence of a environmental pollutants, but the biological consequences of exposure to the organism are found only intracellularly [70, 71]. Protein-adduct formation is considered a surrogate of DNA adducts formation, but only the latter results in critical mutagenic changes [72].

Benzo(a)pyrene B(a)P is a potent carcinogen that have been used a proxy marker for PAHs in environmental sample. Individual metabolism transforms B(a) P to benzo epoxide (a) pyrene diol (BPDE), that establish adducts with DNA and proteins and hydrolysed to BPDE tetrols that are eliminating from the individual body [73]. The concentrations of human serum albumin (HSA) is more than a thousand fold greater than that in DNA in human blood and unlike DNA adducts, HSA adducts are not repair. Therefore, BDPE-HSA should be relatively stable biomarker of B(a)P exposure, with human half life of 20 days that ensures integration B(a)P exposure over about a month [74].

Over the years many studies have contributed to validation of PAH-DNA adduct measurements in human DNA using immunoassays, the most-sensitive of which is the chemiluminescence immunoassay (CIA) [75]. A cohort study of US military soldiers displaced from an area with a clean environmental zone to a much more polluted area showed a substantial increment in the levels of HAP-DNA adducts in blood cells for each individual [76, 77]. In addition, a tremendously higher rate of PAH-DNA adducts for blood cells was observed in young adults sampled in Mexico City during the dry season when atmospheric PAH concentrations were higher, in comparison to the rainy season, when PAH levels were decrease [78].

## **10. Volatile organic compounds**

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are defined as photochemically reactive organic species with a high vapor pressure in the Earth's atmosphere [79]. VOCs include a wide range of compounds such as carbonyls, organic acids, alcohols, alkanes, alkenes, aldehydes, esters, paraffins, ketones and aromatic hydrocarbons [80]. The physical and chemical properties of VOCs and their residence times in the atmosphere (ranging from a few minutes to several months) often lead to threats towards the environment and human health [81].

VOCs originating from biogenic sources play crucial roles in atmospheric chemistry because they are strong ozone precursors that supply essential OH radicals in ambient air for the formation of tropospheric ozone [82, 83]. VOCs has been identified for formation of photochemical smog, stratospheric ozone depletion and the formation of organic acids which contribute to environmental acidification by lowering the pH of rainwater [84–86]. From a human health perspective, their toxic nature and ability to form fine aerosols pose that contribute to health risks, such as asthma, headaches, dizziness, visual disorders and memory impairment [87–90].

## **11. Health effects of VOCs**

The volatilization characteristics of VOCs allow them to enter living organisms through three main routes; by inhalation, dermally and orally through contaminated water or food in order of importance [81]. Toxicokinetic studies showed distribution to lipid-rich tissues such as the brain, bone marrow and body fat [91]. Children and the elderly are the most vulnerable groups due to their higher metabolic rate and weak immune systems [92]. BTEX and carbonyl compounds are classified as toxic air pollutants able to cause adverse health effects even at low concentrations by affecting different target organs e.g. central nervous system, respiratory system, liver, kidneys and reproductive system [93]. Benzene can be absorbed through various tissues such as tissues in the brain, bone marrow cells and also tissues containing high amounts of lipid, with succeeding genotoxic action. Prolonged exposure to benzene may have effects on neurological, immunological, endocrine and blood disease disorders such as aplastic anemia and myeloid leukemia [94]. As a result benzene is the most regulated substance in the world being classified as 'Group 1, carcinogenic to humans', by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC).

When human exposed to toluene, the vaporized toluene will be absorbed to the respiratory tract. According to Pierrehumbert [95], inhalation is the most important route for toluene exposure. About 80% of toluene vapor will be absorb in the first exposure and the absorption is decreasing afterwards. It is known that pulmonary absorption is faster than oral absorption. Oral absorption takes around 2–3 hour to get contact with blood, compare to inhalation absorption which takes only 20–3 minutes at the concentration of 100 ppm. The half life of toluene in human blood is around 3.4 hour but likely to increase to 0.5–2.7 days with the greater amounts of body fat. Due to its solubility, toluene can passess through the placenta, amniotic fluid, human neonates then end up in edipose tissues. This was proved by a study from Fabietti et al. (2—24) which found 0.76 ug/kg concentration of toluene in human breast milk. Apart from the neurotoxicity of toluene, recent studies found that toluene has been linked with color vision loss [96]. The most evidences are the effect on blue yellow discrimination but in few cases, the red green discrimination might be experiences [97]. On top of that, the prolonged exposure of small dose to toluene may effect the lens eyes and outer retinal layer [98, 99].

**87**

**Table 3.**

cyanosis.

**Compounds USEPA** 

**cancer classification**

Formaldehyde B1 Nasal

*The health effects of the main BTEX and carbonyl compounds.*

*Adapted from Kitwattanavong et al. [103].*

*non-carcinogenicity for humans.*

*Health Impacts of Air Pollution*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

demonstrated by neurobehavioral and neurological effects.

compounds, target organs and their critical health effects.

Respiration appears to be the major pathway of exposure to xylene.

Approximately 60% of inhaled xylene goes to lungs. As xylene is well metabolized in human bodies; more than 90% is bio transformed to methylhippuric acid, where it is excreted in urine. Vapors xylene in the lung alveoli dispersed into the blood and are distributed across human body by the circulatory system [102]. Nevertheless, xylene do not have tendency to accumulate in human body. Acute exposure of xylene results in irritation of eyes, nose, throat as well as gastrointestinal effects, and neurological effects. Meanwhile, CNS, kidney, cardiovascular and respiratory effects have been discovered due to xylene exposure. In addition, a study conducted by Adams et al. [102] suggest that chronic exposure to xylene as also associated to a variety of disease, leukopenia, electrocardiogram abnormalities, dyspnoea and

**Table 3** shows the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of selected VOC

**type**

**Precursor effect/ tumor** 

Squamous cell carcinoma

cell carcinoma or adenocarcenoma

**Critical effects**

lymphocyte count

toxicity

coordination

Olfactory degeneration

**Target organ**

Benzene A Blood Leukemia Decreased

Toluene D — Neurological effects Ethylbenzene B2 Kidney Tumors Developmental

Xylene D — Impaired motor

Cavity

*USEPA cancer classification: A = human carcinogen; B1 = probable human carcinogen; B2 = probable human carcinogen; C = possible human carcinogen; D = not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity; E = evidence of* 

*Sources: Integrated Risk Information System. The Risk Assessment Information System [104].*

Acetaldehyde B2 Nasal Nasal squamous

IARC [100] assessed ethylbenzene as demonstrating sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in animals and therefore is classified as a possible human carcinogen. Rodent bioassays by Scott et al. [101], clearly showed enough evidence of carcinogenic activity following inhalation exposure in male rate. The carcinogenicity is depends on the incidences of renal neoplasms after exposure to dose up to a 750 ppm. In human body, ethylbenzene is effectively absorbed through the inhalation and expeditiously circulated. Both in human and rodents, ethylbenzene is metabolized through hydroxylation to produce phenylethanol and will excrete via urination [100]. Urinary excretion is believed to be the main pathway of ethylbenzene elimination both in human and animal studies following inhalation exposure. Human appears to have acute symptom of ethylbenzene on ocular irritation and respiratory tract. Furthermore, affects on hematological changes might be experiences. Acute toxicity studies on animal are almost the same as have been detected in human, however the differentiated between human is that acute toxicity in animal

### *Health Impacts of Air Pollution DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

towards the environment and human health [81].

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are defined as photochemically reactive organic species with a high vapor pressure in the Earth's atmosphere [79]. VOCs include a wide range of compounds such as carbonyls, organic acids, alcohols, alkanes, alkenes, aldehydes, esters, paraffins, ketones and aromatic hydrocarbons [80]. The physical and chemical properties of VOCs and their residence times in the atmosphere (ranging from a few minutes to several months) often lead to threats

VOCs originating from biogenic sources play crucial roles in atmospheric chemistry because they are strong ozone precursors that supply essential OH radicals in ambient air for the formation of tropospheric ozone [82, 83]. VOCs has been identified for formation of photochemical smog, stratospheric ozone depletion and the formation of organic acids which contribute to environmental acidification by lowering the pH of rainwater [84–86]. From a human health perspective, their toxic nature and ability to form fine aerosols pose that contribute to health risks, such as asthma,

The volatilization characteristics of VOCs allow them to enter living organisms through three main routes; by inhalation, dermally and orally through contaminated water or food in order of importance [81]. Toxicokinetic studies showed distribution to lipid-rich tissues such as the brain, bone marrow and body fat [91]. Children and the elderly are the most vulnerable groups due to their higher metabolic rate and weak immune systems [92]. BTEX and carbonyl compounds are classified as toxic air pollutants able to cause adverse health effects even at low concentrations by affecting different target organs e.g. central nervous system, respiratory system, liver, kidneys and reproductive system [93]. Benzene can be absorbed through various tissues such as tissues in the brain, bone marrow cells and also tissues containing high amounts of lipid, with succeeding genotoxic action. Prolonged exposure to benzene may have effects on neurological, immunological, endocrine and blood disease disorders such as aplastic anemia and myeloid leukemia [94]. As a result benzene is the most regulated substance in the world being classified as 'Group 1, carcinogenic to humans', by the International Agency for

When human exposed to toluene, the vaporized toluene will be absorbed to the respiratory tract. According to Pierrehumbert [95], inhalation is the most important route for toluene exposure. About 80% of toluene vapor will be absorb in the first exposure and the absorption is decreasing afterwards. It is known that pulmonary absorption is faster than oral absorption. Oral absorption takes around 2–3 hour to get contact with blood, compare to inhalation absorption which takes only 20–3 minutes at the concentration of 100 ppm. The half life of toluene in human blood is around 3.4 hour but likely to increase to 0.5–2.7 days with the greater amounts of body fat. Due to its solubility, toluene can passess through the placenta, amniotic fluid, human neonates then end up in edipose tissues. This was proved by a study from Fabietti et al. (2—24) which found 0.76 ug/kg concentration of toluene in human breast milk. Apart from the neurotoxicity of toluene, recent studies found that toluene has been linked with color vision loss [96]. The most evidences are the effect on blue yellow discrimination but in few cases, the red green discrimination might be experiences [97]. On top of that, the prolonged exposure of small dose to

toluene may effect the lens eyes and outer retinal layer [98, 99].

headaches, dizziness, visual disorders and memory impairment [87–90].

**10. Volatile organic compounds**

**11. Health effects of VOCs**

Research on Cancer (IARC).

**86**

IARC [100] assessed ethylbenzene as demonstrating sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity in animals and therefore is classified as a possible human carcinogen. Rodent bioassays by Scott et al. [101], clearly showed enough evidence of carcinogenic activity following inhalation exposure in male rate. The carcinogenicity is depends on the incidences of renal neoplasms after exposure to dose up to a 750 ppm. In human body, ethylbenzene is effectively absorbed through the inhalation and expeditiously circulated. Both in human and rodents, ethylbenzene is metabolized through hydroxylation to produce phenylethanol and will excrete via urination [100]. Urinary excretion is believed to be the main pathway of ethylbenzene elimination both in human and animal studies following inhalation exposure. Human appears to have acute symptom of ethylbenzene on ocular irritation and respiratory tract. Furthermore, affects on hematological changes might be experiences. Acute toxicity studies on animal are almost the same as have been detected in human, however the differentiated between human is that acute toxicity in animal demonstrated by neurobehavioral and neurological effects.

Respiration appears to be the major pathway of exposure to xylene. Approximately 60% of inhaled xylene goes to lungs. As xylene is well metabolized in human bodies; more than 90% is bio transformed to methylhippuric acid, where it is excreted in urine. Vapors xylene in the lung alveoli dispersed into the blood and are distributed across human body by the circulatory system [102]. Nevertheless, xylene do not have tendency to accumulate in human body. Acute exposure of xylene results in irritation of eyes, nose, throat as well as gastrointestinal effects, and neurological effects. Meanwhile, CNS, kidney, cardiovascular and respiratory effects have been discovered due to xylene exposure. In addition, a study conducted by Adams et al. [102] suggest that chronic exposure to xylene as also associated to a variety of disease, leukopenia, electrocardiogram abnormalities, dyspnoea and cyanosis.

**Table 3** shows the carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic effects of selected VOC compounds, target organs and their critical health effects.


*Adapted from Kitwattanavong et al. [103].*

*Sources: Integrated Risk Information System. The Risk Assessment Information System [104]. USEPA cancer classification: A = human carcinogen; B1 = probable human carcinogen; B2 = probable human carcinogen; C = possible human carcinogen; D = not classifiable as to human carcinogenicity; E = evidence of non-carcinogenicity for humans.*

#### **Table 3.**

*The health effects of the main BTEX and carbonyl compounds.*

## **12. Ozone**

Ozone is developed upon the reaction of the dioxygen and a single oxygen in the existence of a molecule of the third body that can absorb the heat of the reaction. The unique highly responsive and short-lived oxygen (O) can be produced by photolysis of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) or by ionization of O2.

The stratosphere and troposphere are composed of background ozone. Stratospheric ozone is confined to the tropopause (between 8 and 15 km high) a region it is known as the ozone layer. Stratospheric ozone is referred to as the "good" ozone, considering the ozone layer is crucial for the absorption of lifethreatening ultraviolet (UV-B) rays to human health. Given that immediate contact with ground-level ozone can induce detriment to living cells, organs and species, including individual, animals and plant life, ground-level ozone is considered to be a "bad" ozone.

According to Nuvolene et al. [105] and Koman & Mancuso [106], the documented health effects of ozone are


Even at really low levels, tropospheric ozone result of a vary of health problem including worsened asthma, decreased pulmonary ability, and increased sensitiveness to respiratory diseases including pneumonia and bronchitis. Persistent exposure to ozone over several months can permanently damage the lungs [107]. Ozone can irritate lung airways and cause inflammation much like a sunburn [108, 109]. Other symptoms include wheezing, coughing, pain when taking a deep breath, and breathing difficulties during exercise or outdoor activities [109].

## **13. Carbon monoxide**

Carbon monoxide is produced from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel such as petrol, coal, wood, and natural gases. The health effects of CO breathing include headache, vertigo, nausea, vomiting and eventually loss of consciousness.

The affinity of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is far superior to that of oxygen. Along this vein, severe intoxication may occur in individuals susceptible to elevated levels of carbon monoxide for an extended period of time. As a result of oxygen loss due to competitive binding of carbon monoxide, hypoxia, ischemia and cardiovascular diseases are discovered [1].

**89**

*Health Impacts of Air Pollution*

cular mortality [1].

tures and bright sunshine.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

**14. Environmental burden of disease of air pollution and tempereture**

Air pollution is currently considered as the most significant environmental cause of disease, whereby kills about 3 million people annually and majorly affected the Western Pacific and South East Asia regions [33]. Short-term exposure to air pollutants are associated with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, asthma, respiratory disease, and high morbidity (hospitalization). Meanwhile, the long-term effects associated with air pollution are chronic asthma, pulmonary insufficiency, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovas-

The differential effect of air pollution on health, which is particularly deleterious for older people, children and people with limited resources, is of major concern to global health populations. It is estimated that airborne fine particulate pollution is responsible for approximately 3% of adult cardiopulmonary mortality worldwide [110]. Air pollution is expected to have similar negative impacts in developing countries, with Asian countries accounting for about two-thirds of the world's burden [110]. Beelen et al. [111] had found a relationship between mortality and long-term

Elevated air pollution is usually related with extreme events such as increasing in ambient temperature. Engardt et al. [112] indicated that ozone levels are directly driven by weather since ozone-generating photochemical reactions of air pollutants (nitrogen oxides; methane; volatile organic compounds, VOCs) need high tempera-

The associations between ambient temperatures and human health have been widely studied, and growing evidences have revealed that exposure to ambient temperatures may increase the risks of a range of respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and other disease [113–115]. Although most previous studies found significant relationships between ambient temperature and morbidity or mortality [116, 117], only few had assessed the disease burden attributable to ambient temperatures. It was demonstrated that heat-related mortality and morbidity rapidly increase when temperatures were above optimal. Recently study done by Yiju Zhao et al. [118] highlighted high and low temperature increase the morbidity risk of respiratory disease. Meanwhile, study done by Chung et al. [119] discovered excess mortality due to high ambient temperature was expected to be profound in Korea. The disease burden of a population and how the burden is distributed across different subpopulations (e.g infants, women) are important pieces of information for defining strategies to improve population health. Burden of disease (BOD) is a comprehensive measurement of mortality and morbidity in a single index, which is manifested as disability-adjusted life years (DALY). DALY is estimated by summing the years of life lost (YLL) and years lost due to disability (YLD). Estimation of burden of disease had advantaged over other epidemiological indexes because of its

simplicity, comprehensiveness, and applicability for policy-making process.

The Environmental burden of Disease (EBD) series continues the effort of BOD to generate reliable information, by presenting methods for assessing the environmental burden of outdoor air pollution at national and local levels, as what had been described in World Health Report [120]. Worldwide global burden of disease between 1990 and 2015 shows COPD mortality rates and DALYs were observed in South-East Asia region with 39 deaths per 100,000 people and 791 DALYs per 100,000 people in 2015, followed by Western Pacific region with 25 deaths per 100,000 people and 421 DALYs per 100,000. Ischemic stroke, Trachea, Bronchus and Lung cancer, Ischemic heart disease's DALYs and death rate were generally

exposure to particulate matter, fine particles, and nitrogen compounds.

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

photolysis of nitrogen dioxide (NO2) or by ionization of O2.

such as asthma, emphysema and chronic bronchitis.

evidence for mortality from respiratory diseases.

Ozone is developed upon the reaction of the dioxygen and a single oxygen in the existence of a molecule of the third body that can absorb the heat of the reaction. The unique highly responsive and short-lived oxygen (O) can be produced by

According to Nuvolene et al. [105] and Koman & Mancuso [106], the documented

• Ozone can create undesirable respiratory effects like difficulty breathing and inflammation of the respiratory tract in the general individual (breathlessness and pain during deep breathing). These effects can worsen pulmonary illnesses

• Prolonged exposure to ozone is likely one of many contributing factors to the

• Exposure to ozone is likely to result in premature death, and there is stronger

Even at really low levels, tropospheric ozone result of a vary of health problem including worsened asthma, decreased pulmonary ability, and increased sensitiveness to respiratory diseases including pneumonia and bronchitis. Persistent exposure to ozone over several months can permanently damage the lungs [107]. Ozone can irritate lung airways and cause inflammation much like a sunburn [108, 109]. Other symptoms include wheezing, coughing, pain when taking a deep breath, and breathing difficulties during exercise or outdoor

Carbon monoxide is produced from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel such as petrol, coal, wood, and natural gases. The health effects of CO breathing include headache, vertigo, nausea, vomiting and eventually loss of consciousness. The affinity of carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is far superior to that of oxygen. Along this vein, severe intoxication may occur in individuals susceptible to elevated levels of carbon monoxide for an extended period of time. As a result of oxygen loss due to competitive binding of carbon monoxide, hypoxia, ischemia and cardiovas-

• Children are at increased risk from ozone exposure, as children have a relatively higher dose per body mass and children's lung is still developing.

The stratosphere and troposphere are composed of background ozone. Stratospheric ozone is confined to the tropopause (between 8 and 15 km high) a region it is known as the ozone layer. Stratospheric ozone is referred to as the "good" ozone, considering the ozone layer is crucial for the absorption of lifethreatening ultraviolet (UV-B) rays to human health. Given that immediate contact with ground-level ozone can induce detriment to living cells, organs and species, including individual, animals and plant life, ground-level ozone is considered to be

**12. Ozone**

a "bad" ozone.

activities [109].

**13. Carbon monoxide**

cular diseases are discovered [1].

health effects of ozone are

development of asthma.

**88**

## **14. Environmental burden of disease of air pollution and tempereture**

Air pollution is currently considered as the most significant environmental cause of disease, whereby kills about 3 million people annually and majorly affected the Western Pacific and South East Asia regions [33]. Short-term exposure to air pollutants are associated with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, asthma, respiratory disease, and high morbidity (hospitalization). Meanwhile, the long-term effects associated with air pollution are chronic asthma, pulmonary insufficiency, cardiovascular diseases, and cardiovascular mortality [1].

The differential effect of air pollution on health, which is particularly deleterious for older people, children and people with limited resources, is of major concern to global health populations. It is estimated that airborne fine particulate pollution is responsible for approximately 3% of adult cardiopulmonary mortality worldwide [110]. Air pollution is expected to have similar negative impacts in developing countries, with Asian countries accounting for about two-thirds of the world's burden [110]. Beelen et al. [111] had found a relationship between mortality and long-term exposure to particulate matter, fine particles, and nitrogen compounds.

Elevated air pollution is usually related with extreme events such as increasing in ambient temperature. Engardt et al. [112] indicated that ozone levels are directly driven by weather since ozone-generating photochemical reactions of air pollutants (nitrogen oxides; methane; volatile organic compounds, VOCs) need high temperatures and bright sunshine.

The associations between ambient temperatures and human health have been widely studied, and growing evidences have revealed that exposure to ambient temperatures may increase the risks of a range of respiratory diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and other disease [113–115]. Although most previous studies found significant relationships between ambient temperature and morbidity or mortality [116, 117], only few had assessed the disease burden attributable to ambient temperatures. It was demonstrated that heat-related mortality and morbidity rapidly increase when temperatures were above optimal. Recently study done by Yiju Zhao et al. [118] highlighted high and low temperature increase the morbidity risk of respiratory disease. Meanwhile, study done by Chung et al. [119] discovered excess mortality due to high ambient temperature was expected to be profound in Korea.

The disease burden of a population and how the burden is distributed across different subpopulations (e.g infants, women) are important pieces of information for defining strategies to improve population health. Burden of disease (BOD) is a comprehensive measurement of mortality and morbidity in a single index, which is manifested as disability-adjusted life years (DALY). DALY is estimated by summing the years of life lost (YLL) and years lost due to disability (YLD). Estimation of burden of disease had advantaged over other epidemiological indexes because of its simplicity, comprehensiveness, and applicability for policy-making process.

The Environmental burden of Disease (EBD) series continues the effort of BOD to generate reliable information, by presenting methods for assessing the environmental burden of outdoor air pollution at national and local levels, as what had been described in World Health Report [120]. Worldwide global burden of disease between 1990 and 2015 shows COPD mortality rates and DALYs were observed in South-East Asia region with 39 deaths per 100,000 people and 791 DALYs per 100,000 people in 2015, followed by Western Pacific region with 25 deaths per 100,000 people and 421 DALYs per 100,000. Ischemic stroke, Trachea, Bronchus and Lung cancer, Ischemic heart disease's DALYs and death rate were generally

higher in all the regions with South-East Asia having 943 DALYs per 100,000 people and 38 deaths per 100, 000. Exposure to air pollution caused over 7.0 million deaths and 103.1 million lost years of healthy life in 2015, caused an estimated 7.6% of total global mortality in 2015 [121]. The WHO estimation report for Malaysia's Environmental burden of disease was published in 2009 [24]. Estimates were based on Comparative Risk Assessment, evidence synthesis and expert evaluation for regional exposure and WHO country health statistics 2004. Cardiovascular disease, respiratory infections, COPD, asthma and lung cancers were among the disease listed. The preliminary estimations for the diseases were 2.5, 1.6, 1.4, 1.2 and 0.5 DALYs/1000 capita, per year, respectively [120].

## **Author details**

Muhammad Ikram Bin A Wahab Environmental Health and Industrial Safety Programme, Center for Toxicology and Health Risk Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

\*Address all correspondence to: ikram@ukm.edu.my

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

**91**

6: 107-121.

*Health Impacts of Air Pollution*

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Health, 8:14.

4581-4591.

2595-2601.

3583-3590.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.98833*

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Muhammad Ikram Bin A Wahab

\*Address all correspondence to: ikram@ukm.edu.my

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Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Environmental Health and Industrial Safety Programme, Center for Toxicology and Health Risk Studies, Faculty of Health Sciences, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,

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*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

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[69] Jacob, J., Seidel, A. 2002. Biomonitoring of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in human urine. Journal of Chromatography B - Analytical Technologies in the Biomedical and Life Sciences 778: 31-47.

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[71] Gallo, V.; Khan, A.; Gonzales, C.; Phillips, D.H.; Schoket, B.; Gyorffy, E.; Anna, L.; Kovacs, K.; Moller, P.; Loft, S.; et al. 2008. Validation of biomarkers for the study of environmental carcinogens: A review. Biomarkers. 13: 505-534.

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[74] Kafferlein, H.U., Marczynski, B., Mensing, T., Bruning, T. 2010. Albumin and hemoglobin adducts of benzo(a) pyrene in human-analyticalmethods, exposure assessment, and recommendations for future directions. Crtic. Rev. Toxicol. 40: 126-150.

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[79] Sahu, L., 2012. Volatile organic compounds and their measurements in the troposphere. Curr. Sci. 102, 1645-1649.

[80] Atkinson, R., Arey, J., 2003. Gasphase tropospheric chemistry of biogenic volatile organic compounds: a review. Atmos. Environ. 37, 197-219.

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[93] Duerta-Davidson, R., Courage, C., Rushton, L., Levy, L., 2001. Benzene in the environment: an assessment of the

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[81] Montero-Montoya, R., Lopez-Vargas, R., Arellano-Aguilar, O., 2018. Volatile organic compounds in air: sources, distribution, exposure and associated illnesses in children. Ann.

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**Chapter 6**

**Abstract**

**99**

(MAUI)

Medellin Air Quality Initiative

*Andres Yarce Botero, Olga Lucia Quintero Montoya,*

*Jose Fernando Duque Trujillo, Elena Montilla, Andres Pareja,*

This chapter book presents Medellín Air qUality Initiative or MAUI Project; it tells a brief story of this teamwork, their scientific and technological directions. The modeling work focuses on the ecosystems and human health impact due to the exposition of several pollutants transported from long-range places and deposited.

implemented over the región of interest previously updating some input conditions like land use and orography. By other side, a spinoff initiative named SimpleSpace was also born during this time, developing, through this instrumentation branch a very compact and modular low-cost sensor to deploy in new air quality networks over the study domain. For testing this instrument and find an alternative way to measure pollutants in the vertical layers, the Helicopter In-Situ Pollution Assessment Experiment HIPAE misión was developed to take data through the overflight of a helicopter over Medellín. From the data obtained from the Simple units and other experiments in the payload, a citogenotoxicity analysis quantify the cellular

**Keywords:** Chemical Transport Model, LOTOS-EUROS, contaminant deposition,

*Jhon Edinson Hinestroza, Elias David Niño-Ruiz,*

*Jean Paul Delgado, Jose Ignacio Marulanda Bernal,*

*Jaime Andres Betancur, Alejandro Vélez, Arjo Segers,*

*Bibiana Esperanza Boada Sanabria and Sara Lorduy*

For this objective, the WRF and LOTOS-EUROS were configurated and

*Jimmy Anderson Flórez, Angela María Rendón,*

*Santiago Lopez-Restrepo, Nicolás Pinel,*

*Monica Lucia Alvarez-Laínez,*

*Andres Felipe Zapata-Gonzalez,*

*Arnold Heemink, Juan Ernesto Soto,*

damage caused by the exposition of the pollutants.

airborne measurenments, cellular damage, SimpleSpace

[120] World Health Organization. 2012. *Burden of disease from Ambient Air Pollution for 2012.* World Health Organization.

[121] Babatola, S.S. 2018. Global burden of disease attributable to air pollution. Journal of Public Health in Africa, 9:813.

## **Chapter 6**

*Environmental Sustainability - Preparing for Tomorrow*

[119] Chung, S.C., Hae-Kwan Cheong, Jae-Hyun Park, Jong-Hun Kim, and Hyunjin Han. 2017. Current and

Projected Burden of Disease From High

[120] World Health Organization. 2012. *Burden of disease from Ambient Air Pollution for 2012.* World Health

[121] Babatola, S.S. 2018. Global burden of disease attributable to air pollution. Journal of Public Health in Africa, 9:813.

Ambient Temperature in Korea. Epidemiology, 28. S98-S105.

Organization.

multicentre ESCAPE project. Lancet.

[112] Engardt M, Bergstro¨m R, Andersson C. 2009. Climate and emission changes contributing to changes in near-surface ozone in Europe over the coming decades: results from model studies. Ambio, 38: 452-45.

[113] Analitis A, Katsouyanni K, Biggeri A, Baccini M, Forsberg B, Bisanti L, et al. Effects of cold weather on mortality: results from 15 European cities within the PHEWE project. Am J Epidemiol. 2008; 168(12): 1397-408.

[114] Dang, T.N., Honda, Y., Do, D.V., Pham, A.L.T., Chu, C., Huang, C., Phung, D. 2019. Effects of Extreme Temperetures on Mortality and Hospitalization in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Int. J.Environ.Res.Public

[115] Gasparrini A, Armstrong B,

temperatures on cause-specific mortality in England and Wales. Occupational & Environmental

[116] Basu R, Samet JM. Relation between elevated ambient temperature

[117] Ye X, Wolff R, Yu W, Vaneckova P, Pan X, Tong S. Ambient temperature

[118] Yiju Zhao, Zhao Huang, Shengyong Wang, Jianxiong Hu, Jianpeng Xiao, Xing Li, Tao Liu, Weilin Zeng, Lingchuan Guo, Qingfeng Du and Wenjun Ma. 2019. Morbidity burden of respiratory diseases attributable to ambient temperature: a case study in a

epidemiological evidence. Environ Health Perspect. 2012; 120(1): 19-28.

and mortality: a review of the epidemiologic evidence. 2002. Epidemiol Rev. 2002; 24(2):190-202.

and morbidity: a review of

subtropical city in China. Environmental Health, 18:89.

Medicine. 2011;69(1):56.

Kovats S, Wilkinson P. The effect of high

2014; 383: 785-95.

Health, 16: 432.

**98**
