**2.3 Metabolic water**

Metabolic water refers to water created inside a living organism through their metabolism, by oxidizing energy-containing substances in their feed [19].


#### **Table 1.**

*Typical daily water consumption for layers at 21°C [22].*


**89**

**Table 3.**

*Effect of Environmental Temperature on Water Intake in Poultry*

**Age (weeks) Galons of water/1000 birds**

1 10 10 2 20 15 3 30 20 4 40 30 5 55 40 6 75 60 7 100 80 8 125 100 9 150 115 10 170 130 11 190 140 12 210 150 13 215 160 14 220 170

**Toms Hens**

Birds excrete uric acid and can have a net gain of water from the metabolism of protein [20]. Migratory birds have been reported to rely exclusively on metabolic

*Typical daily water consumption (galons) for turkeys at 21°C (liters per 1000 mixed sex birds) [23].*

in age, quantity and quality of feed dry matter. This has been documented to be 3:1–4:2 g/g body weight at 12–29 days of age following stabilization at around 2 g/g body weight. The water feed ratio for the above period are 2:0–2:3 respectively [24, 25].

**Tables 1** and **2** [22] and **Table 3** [23] provided data on typical water consump-

In quail chicks, the water requirement has been reported to change with increase

Birds, like most mammals, are considered to be homeothermic, and they maintain their deep body temperature at about the same level over a wide range of ambient temperatures [26]. Water intake will vary depending on age, environmental temperature, relative humidity, certain diet constituents, type of drinkers used and rate of growth [27]. Water consumption can be limited if the water is too hot or is contaminated with excess minerals [28, 29]. Water and feed consumption rates are interdependent, so reduced water intake can also lead to reduced feed intake [30].

It has been reported that the thermoneutral temperature for broiler chicks up to 7 days of age ranges between 28 and 35°C, and that temperatures higher than these may induce hyperthermia and dehydration, leading to a lower feed consumption

water production while making non-stop flights [21].

15 220 16 220

**3. Factors affecting water intake**

tion levels for layers, broilers and turkeys, respectively, at 21°C.

**3.1 Effects of environmental temperature on water intake**

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95695*

**Table 2.**

*Typical daily water consumption for broilers at 21°C (liters per 1000 mixed sex birds) [22].*


#### *Effect of Environmental Temperature on Water Intake in Poultry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95695*

#### **Table 3.**

*Advances in Poultry Nutrition Research*

**2.1 Drinking water**

**2.2 Water in feed**

**2.3 Metabolic water**

**2. Sources of water in poultry nutrition**

affect poultry performance and welfare [17].

Drinking water constitutes the greatest source of water to poultry and it is made available in drinkers [1]. It is of great concern to poultry producers due to its great variability in quality and potential for contamination [5]. It could be from tap, stored in rooftop tanks, or underground (well) water [7]. The physico-chemical parameters established as indicators of water quality include taste, color, odor, pH, electrical conductivity (EC), hardness, alkalinity, salinity, and presence of cations and anions [14]. High-quality drinking water has been defined as water that contains inclusions, which promote vitality and lack inclusions causing morbidity and mortality [15, 16]. Because no water in nature is 100% pure, different water sources will have varying degree of water inclusions, which directly or indirectly

This is the water available in the feed. However, feeding of wet mashes to poultry has not been recommended for use in large scale commercial poultry production, on the basis that it does not offer any nutritional advantage and is difficult to apply [18].

Metabolic water refers to water created inside a living organism through their metabolism, by oxidizing energy-containing substances in their feed [19].

**Production stage Age/rate of production Liters of water/1000 birds**

Layer pullet 12 weeks 160

Laying hens 50% production 220

4 weeks 100

18 weeks 200

90% production 270

**Age (weeks) Liters of water/1000 birds**

*Typical daily water consumption for broilers at 21°C (liters per 1000 mixed sex birds) [22].*

1 65 2 120 3 180 4 245 5 290 6 330 7 355 8 370

*Typical daily water consumption for layers at 21°C [22].*

**88**

**Table 2.**

**Table 1.**

*Typical daily water consumption (galons) for turkeys at 21°C (liters per 1000 mixed sex birds) [23].*

Birds excrete uric acid and can have a net gain of water from the metabolism of protein [20]. Migratory birds have been reported to rely exclusively on metabolic water production while making non-stop flights [21].

**Tables 1** and **2** [22] and **Table 3** [23] provided data on typical water consumption levels for layers, broilers and turkeys, respectively, at 21°C.

In quail chicks, the water requirement has been reported to change with increase in age, quantity and quality of feed dry matter. This has been documented to be 3:1–4:2 g/g body weight at 12–29 days of age following stabilization at around 2 g/g body weight. The water feed ratio for the above period are 2:0–2:3 respectively [24, 25].

## **3. Factors affecting water intake**

Birds, like most mammals, are considered to be homeothermic, and they maintain their deep body temperature at about the same level over a wide range of ambient temperatures [26]. Water intake will vary depending on age, environmental temperature, relative humidity, certain diet constituents, type of drinkers used and rate of growth [27]. Water consumption can be limited if the water is too hot or is contaminated with excess minerals [28, 29]. Water and feed consumption rates are interdependent, so reduced water intake can also lead to reduced feed intake [30].

#### **3.1 Effects of environmental temperature on water intake**

It has been reported that the thermoneutral temperature for broiler chicks up to 7 days of age ranges between 28 and 35°C, and that temperatures higher than these may induce hyperthermia and dehydration, leading to a lower feed consumption

and delayed growth [31–33]. On the other hand, a lower environmental temperature induces hypothermia and may lead to pulmonary hypertension in broilers.

Chicks exposed to low ambient temperature (20°C) had lower water intake than chicks brooded at high environmental temperature (35°C) as reported by Moraes et al. [34]. These were related to the heat conserving behavior of these birds, since at low ambient temperature (20°C) they clustered to maintain optimal heat thus reducing the frequency to the feeder and drinker. Similar decrease in water intake has been reported in birds above 2 weeks of age but with increased feed intake and metabolism patterns [35]. Since poultry are homeotherms that can live comfortably only in a relatively narrow zone of thermoneutrality [36], they are forced to increase feed consumption under low temperatures in order to balance their body temperatures [37].

Broilers subjected to acute heat stress have been reported to show higher water intake. The water intake increases in order to maintain thermoregulatory balance [38], as heat stress induces high water loss through the respiratory. This acts as a means to achieve efficient thermoregulation through evaporative cooling. In critical heat stress situations, water loss may cause marked changes in the thermoregulatory balance of poultry [39] and this may result in death.
