**11. Effect of nanominerals on health and immunity**

Trace essential minerals also act as immune stimulants in birds. Hence balanced mineral mixture is given much priority to maximize the animal or bird productivity and minimize the stress (biotic as well as abiotic) in animals and birds. Minerals particularly Zn, Cu, Se and Mn are studied on their immune-stimulant effects profusely, which may require at higher concentrations for better immunity compared with the optimum production levels [1, 2].

Different nanominerals have showed to exhibit better immune responses (**Figure 3**). Hafez et al. [100] observed enhanced cellular immunity evidenced from increases in serum IgY concentration, total lymphocyte count, macrophages, phagocytic activity and phagocytic index in ZnO-NP fed groups compared to ZnO supplemented group. Nano-Zn supplementation at 0.06 mg/kg in the basal diet improved immune status of broiler equivalent to that of 15 mg/kg diet of organic Zn supplementation in term of increased weight of lymphoid organs and improved humoral immunity [47]. Supplementation of ZnO-NP in dry broiler ration improved carcasses yield and relative weight of lymphoid and digestive organs compared to wet diet during the starter period [104, 105]. Retention of Se in liver and muscle increased in a dose dependent manner with dietary intake of nano-Se (0.3, 05, 1 and 2 mg/kg diet), but did not affect growth performance whereas improved meat quality, immune function, and oxidation resistance were observed for nano-Se level ranging from 0.3 to 1 mg/kg diet [57]. Addition of Cu-NP in drinking water (10 mg/l) improved immunity, and productivity more efficiently compared to

*Advances in Poultry Nutrition Research*

at decreased rate of application.

**10. Impact of nanominerals on anti-oxidative activity**

Trace minerals particularly Zn, Se, Cu, and Mn play a major role in anti-oxidant system, either being a component of the antioxidant metallo-enzymes or indirectly by regulating their activities. These enzymes act an indicator of the wellbeing of the animals and they increase or decrease depending on the mineral level in the animal or birds. Hence, better bioavailability of a mineral source can be determined by monitoring these enzyme levels which are mineral specific. Different mineral NP have been shown to improve antioxidant status in birds compared to their conventional forms (**Figure 3**). Supplementation of ZnO-NP at 40 and 80 mg/ kg in the diet of broiler chickens augmented their antioxidant status as evidenced from increased activity of SOD and catalase, and decreased concentration of malondialdehyde [100]. Zhao et al. [17] observed higher total antioxidant activity in serum and liver tissue, serum catalase activity and reduced serum and liver malondialdehyde concentration in the 20 mg/kg nano-ZnO group of broiler chickens

and pro-proliferative genes [94], and also improved the bone characteristics at 42 days birds which signified the possible effect of nano-Cu in bone development and maintenance [95]. The better performances in poultry by in ovo injection of nano-Cu was attributed to improved metabolic rate during embryogenesis resulting in amplified performance of broiler chickens after hatching [96]. Supplemental nano-Cr-picolinate at 0.5 and 3 mg/kg of Cr improved egg quality, retention of Cr and Zn, whereas, it decreased shell ratio in the 60th day eggs [58]. Nano-Cr supplementation at 0.4 mg/kg of feed also improved egg quality parameters including Cr and Zn content in eggshell, Ca in the liver and eggshell, and Zn in egg yolk [59]. Another study specified that eggs of birds supplemented with nano-Cr at 0.2 and 0.4 mg/kg feed exhibited higher shell strength than eggs of hens from the group control and receiving Cr in an inorganic form [97]. In ovo supplementation of nano-Fe though improved body weight gain to egg ratio and feed conversions ratio at 7 days of age in broiler chicks, but no such improvement was observed later and there was no significant effect on hematological parameters [98]. L-cysteine-coated Fe-oxide NP at 6 or 60 mg/kg diet improved availability and utilization of Fe as evident from increased percentage of egg production and egg weight in quails [99]. Taken together, nano-minerals can improve egg production and s eggs quality traits

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**Figure 3.**

*Beneficial effect of different nanominerals in poultry production.*

coarse CuSO4 [106]. A study involving Cu-NP, agglomerates of Cu-NP and Cu microparticles on the metabolism in broiler chickens after a single intramuscular injection revealed that all these forms had growth stimulating effect along with increased red cell level, hemoglobin, Cu and protein in blood serum, where effects were expressed quickly by Cu-NP [107].

### **12. Nanominerals as antimicrobial feed additives**

Pathogenic microbial load in the gut of poultry is detrimental as they reduce growth rate, feed efficiency and mortality, and are some of these contaminants may survive during food processing and storage. The in-feed antibiotics used for preventing the pathogens as well as growth promoters has been great concern due to possible emergence of drug resistance in microbes as well as appearance of the drug residue in poultry products and subsequently affecting consumer's health [108]. There is an optimism of using nano-minerals as antibiotic alternatives due to their antimicrobial properties [109]. NP use has been established in therapeutics, drug delivery and diagnostics [110].

Many research carried has explored the antimicrobial action of metal oxide-NP [109]. Nano-Ag supplementation at 4 mg/kg diet in broiler chickens reduced serum cholesterol, aspartate aminotransferase levels and reduced caecal *Escherichia coli*, but had no significant effect on Lactobacillus count [70]. Nano-Ag in water (25 mg/ kg) increased the population of lactic acid bacteria without any adverse effect on enterocytes of duodenal villi [111]. Nano-Ag lowered the number of *Escherichia coli*, *Streptococcus*, *Salmonella*, and total mesophilic bacteria in the litter [112]. ZnO-NP was found be effective against both gram positive and gram-negative bacteria [109, 113] as well as spores that are resistant to high temperature and pressure [29]. ZnO-NP are also effective in inhibiting the growth of fungi (*Aspergillus flavus*, *A. ochraceus* and *A. niger*) and their mycotoxins production [114]. Some possible mechanisms of bactericidal action of metal oxide NP was generation of reactive oxygen species inside the bacterial cells (e.g., hydroxyl, hydroperoxide, and superoxide radicals) that may damage lipid membranes of cells and organelles of bacteria [109, 115] or they alter permeability of bacteria after entering their plasma membrane resulting in cell death [116]. They may damage bacterial cell after penetration by interacting with sulfur and phosphorus containing important compounds like DNA [113]. As per Rajendran et al. [117], ZnO NP inactivates the proteins that are responsible for transport of nutrients, thus decreasing the membrane permeability and eventually causing the cellular death. Another explanation about antimicrobial action of metal oxide NP is that microorganisms carrying a negative charge are electromagnetically attracted towards metal oxides carrying a positive charge, subsequently leading to oxidization and death of microbe [113]. The antibacterial activity depends on the size, with better result obtained with smaller size [118]. But, Arabi et al. [113] observed the significance of surface area and concentration of NP, whereas crystalline structure and shape of NP have little significance.

### **13. Environment implication of nanomineral supplementation**

In high intensified production system, trace minerals are added to poultry diets in high amounts exceeding the birds' requirements, with a large safety margin, creating environmental issues particularly in areas of intensive poultry production [8]. A study reported that by using poultry manure, Zn content in soil was found in excess by 660% in comparison to plant Zn requirements, predisposing to

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*Essential Nanominerals and Other Nanomaterials in Poultry Nutrition and Production*

without compromising the production, health and quality of products.

Trace minerals such as Se is essential in minute quantities in poultry diet to reduce stress, improve immunity and overall health, but safe limit of inorganic Se is very narrow. Hu et al. [51] observed a wider range between the optimal and toxic dietary levels of nano-Se compared to inorganic sodium selenite in broiler chickens. But contradictory reports exist regarding occurrence of severe pathological changes in liver due to increase in nano-Se concentration from 0.15 to 0.3 mg/ kg diet [124]. One of the possible mechanisms of nano-Se action in poultry could be conversion of nano-Se into selenite, H2Se or Se-phosphate followed by synthesis of selenoproteins by gut microbiota, which was also reported by Surai et al. [125] in *Veiollonella*. Reports suggest lower toxicity of Se NP than selenomethionine [126]. Also, Gangadoo et al. [127] reported that nano Se did not cause any damage to epithelial cells in the digestive system and neuronal bodies in brain tissue signifying its lesser toxicity in animal models. Nano-Ag in higher concentration (8 and 12 mg/ kg diet) had detrimental effect on organs such as liver [128]. Ag-NP supplementation in drinking water (15 mg/L) of broilers had no significant growth promoting or coccidiostat action [129]. At higher concentration (50 mg/L) in drinking water, no effect on the intestinal colonization of C. jejuni was found; however, reduced body weight gain was observed in broiler chickens [130]. Dietary ZnO NP at 40 and 60 mg/kg alleviated the negative results of heat stress evident from lowering of serum corticosterone level [131]. Saki and Abbasinezhad [132] reported improved embryonic growth and development in broiler on supplementation of 25 mg/kg diet of nano-Fe and 100 mg/kg diet of Fe-nano-alimet chelate. But toxicity of nano-FeO was reported in chick embryo possibly due to its interaction with egg albumen.

phytotoxicity [119]. Among minerals, Fe, Cu and Mn are always found in excess

Poor retention efficiency on inorganic mineral sources leads to excretion of unabsorbed minerals to the environment, which may be a potential environment pollutant especially in the area of intensive poultry farming. Phosphorus excretion in poultry excreta from large scale poultry farming has been a matter of concern from environment pollution point of view. Predominantly, inorganic P sources are used in poultry ration for optimum growth, egg production which results in excretion of huge amount of P to the environment [1]. Improved absorption of minerals through NP may reduce excretion of unutilized minerals and could minimize the environmental pollution. Cufadar et al. [88] reported that the Zn content of the feces was less in poultry when they are supplemented with nano-Zn as compared to organic and inorganic Zn. Furthermore, Hassan et al. [69] found that DCP NP supplementation reduced excretion of Ca and P by 50.7 and 46.2%, respectively. Dietary Cu is absorbed in a range between 10 to 30% in the small intestine of the animal creating environmental issues [3, 92], but supplementation of nano-Cu has been proved effective in prevention of environmental leaching of unabsorbed Cu by virtue of its efficient intestinal absorption and also functions at the molecular level [120, 121]. Considering Zn, predominantly ZnO or ZnSO4 are used in commercial poultry feeds and among these, ZnO is used in 80–90% cases having less bioavailability [122]. Reports suggests nano-Zn are better absorbed in different animals [40, 41] and birds [47, 48], thus reducing the amount of Zn excreted to the environment, and environment pollution. Reports suggest that nano-Cr has better bioavailability than organic and inorganic Cr supplements [123]. Therefore, nanominerals offer opportunities to reducing environmental pollution of minerals

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96013*

than the amount required by the plants [8].

**14. Special aspects of nanominerals**

*Essential Nanominerals and Other Nanomaterials in Poultry Nutrition and Production DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96013*

phytotoxicity [119]. Among minerals, Fe, Cu and Mn are always found in excess than the amount required by the plants [8].

Poor retention efficiency on inorganic mineral sources leads to excretion of unabsorbed minerals to the environment, which may be a potential environment pollutant especially in the area of intensive poultry farming. Phosphorus excretion in poultry excreta from large scale poultry farming has been a matter of concern from environment pollution point of view. Predominantly, inorganic P sources are used in poultry ration for optimum growth, egg production which results in excretion of huge amount of P to the environment [1]. Improved absorption of minerals through NP may reduce excretion of unutilized minerals and could minimize the environmental pollution. Cufadar et al. [88] reported that the Zn content of the feces was less in poultry when they are supplemented with nano-Zn as compared to organic and inorganic Zn. Furthermore, Hassan et al. [69] found that DCP NP supplementation reduced excretion of Ca and P by 50.7 and 46.2%, respectively. Dietary Cu is absorbed in a range between 10 to 30% in the small intestine of the animal creating environmental issues [3, 92], but supplementation of nano-Cu has been proved effective in prevention of environmental leaching of unabsorbed Cu by virtue of its efficient intestinal absorption and also functions at the molecular level [120, 121]. Considering Zn, predominantly ZnO or ZnSO4 are used in commercial poultry feeds and among these, ZnO is used in 80–90% cases having less bioavailability [122]. Reports suggests nano-Zn are better absorbed in different animals [40, 41] and birds [47, 48], thus reducing the amount of Zn excreted to the environment, and environment pollution. Reports suggest that nano-Cr has better bioavailability than organic and inorganic Cr supplements [123]. Therefore, nanominerals offer opportunities to reducing environmental pollution of minerals without compromising the production, health and quality of products.
