**4. Existing policy frameworks**

As means to enhance intra- and inter-specific on-farm crop diversity, diverse initiatives, policies and global frameworks have been developed and implemented. In recent years, focus has been on areas of synergies and streamlining efforts among the health, environmental and agricultural sectors (**Figure 3**). The number of policy and legal frameworks targeting crop diversity, reflects the growing global interest and concern and the commitment of countries for their conservation and sustainable use [51, 121].

#### **Figure 3.**

*Timeline showing the development of initiatives and frameworks important for the conservation and sustainable use of crop diversity (adapted with permission from [122]).*

*On-Farm Crop Diversity for Advancing Food Security and Nutrition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96067*

great importance for assessing the production and resilience traits of farmers'

Many traits have been mapped to specific genes and as a result, more analyses are being conducted per unit of time that allow for more specific mapping of traits. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping results provide useful information to understand the genetic mechanisms of important traits and improve the efficiency of marker-assisted selection and genomics-assisted breeding [112, 113]. Taken together, existing genomics knowledge and tools may be used to overcome the constraints to the development of adapted varieties that combat malnutrition and

Advances in phenotyping technology and methodologies for multi-population data analysis have made possible the mapping of QTL [116, 117]. In addition, DNA sequencing has become more rapid, more precise and less expensive [104, 110]; the genomes of most staple crops, and some minor ones, have been sequenced [118]. A recent initiative driven through the African Orphan Crops Consortium (AOCC) is applying genome-enabled methods to improve the production of 101 underresearched ('orphan') crops on the continent [119]. To date, eight genomes have been sequenced and published and another 26 are underway [120]. The ultimate goal of this initiative is to develop resilient, palatable and nutritious varieties of local crops for local peoples to consume and sell – thereby enhancing their nutritional

As means to enhance intra- and inter-specific on-farm crop diversity, diverse initiatives, policies and global frameworks have been developed and implemented. In recent years, focus has been on areas of synergies and streamlining efforts among the health, environmental and agricultural sectors (**Figure 3**). The number of policy and legal frameworks targeting crop diversity, reflects the growing global interest and concern and the commitment of countries for their conservation and sustain-

*Timeline showing the development of initiatives and frameworks important for the conservation and*

*sustainable use of crop diversity (adapted with permission from [122]).*

varieties/landraces.

*Landraces - Traditional Variety and Natural Breed*

climate change [114, 115].

status and livelihoods.

able use [51, 121].

**Figure 3.**

**14**

**4. Existing policy frameworks**

While crop diversity has been a key focus of many policy discussions since 1950 onwards [7], the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources which was adopted by resolution 8/83 of the FAO Conference in 1983 was a watershed moment. The objective of this Undertaking was "to ensure that plant genetic resources of economic and/or social interest, particularly for agriculture, will be explored, preserved, evaluated and made available for plant breeding and scientific purposes" [123].

This laid the groundwork for the development of cornerstone frameworks for crop diversity, especially:


## **5. Looking forward**

Addressing livelihood options for smallholder farmers requires that the focus of R&D be broadened to include a much wider range of crop species and cropping systems. This diversity is essential for breeding new plant varieties that confer the ability to adapt to changing environments, including new pests and diseases and adverse climatic conditions, on cropping systems. Thousands of years of farming and targeted selection have resulted in an invaluable heritage of locally adapted varieties of major and minor crops [16, 127]. The greater the diversity, the greater the chance that at least some of the individuals will possess an allelic variant suited to changing environments, and will produce offspring with that variant [7].

#### **5.1 Bridging conservation, sustainable use and the seed sectors**

To achieve the most benefits from PGRFA while at the same time safeguarding them, activities that address conservation must be linked to those concerned with

Building national programmes and institutional capacities is critically important

The Second GPA [5] provides guidance on the human and institutional capabil-

• Priority Activity 13 focuses on developing national programmes, recognizing that efforts to coordinate national planning, priority setting and fundraising are needed. Emphasis is placed on enhancing collaboration between the public and private sectors, national and international cooperation, strengthening links between PGRFA conservation and use, developing information systems and publicly accessible databases, identifying gaps in the conservation and use of PGRFA, increasing public awareness and implementing national policies and

• Promoting and strengthening networks for PGRFA, as described in Priority Activity 14, are crucial for improved coordination, communication and organizational skills. Resources and capacity should be available for activities such as planning, communications, travel, meetings, network publications such as newsletters and meeting reports, and network strengthening, including

• Information systems for PGRFA facilitates evidence-based decision making for their effective conservation and use. Priority Activity 15 provides

• In order to monitor and safeguard genetic diversity and minimize genetic erosion of crop diversity, capacities must to be strengthened for gathering and interpreting information in conducting inventories and surveys (Priority activity 16). Training on monitoring should be provided to breeders, farmers and indigenous and local communities. It is important to develop training materials, including self-teaching tools, in local languages as needed.

• As described in Priority activity 17, the long-term availability of adequate human resources capacity in all areas of PGRFA conservation and use, including management, legal and policy aspects, must be developed and strengthened. This includes support for enabling national and regional organizations and programmes to update curricula, provide advanced

education and strengthen research and technical capacities in all relevant areas.

guidance for national and regional programmes, including for strengthening and harmonizing documentation, characterization and evaluation of germplasm.

the preparation of successful proposals for submission to donors.

ities that should be strengthened for the conservation and sustainable use of PGRFA, including farmers' varieties/landraces. These are summarized below:

legislation and international treaties and conventions.

as a means to promote public awareness on the importance of the diversity of PGRFA [5, 131]. The support to policy-makers as well as training and capacity building for scientists, breeders, extension specialists, seed producers, farmers, indigenous peoples and local communities on themes that enable the promotion of the development and commercialization of all crop varieties, primarily farmers' varieties, landraces and underutilized species, is recognized as a fundamental necessity [3]. Relevant topics for such training and capacity building activities include activities that promote the increased on-farm management of crop diversity such as the identification of all suitable materials and the development and implementation of sustainable management practices, postharvest processing and marketing methods and the documentation of relevant local and traditional knowledge. Additional activities include those that promote establishing, running and advising

*On-Farm Crop Diversity for Advancing Food Security and Nutrition*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96067*

local small-scale seed enterprises.

**17**

**Figure 4.**

*Continuum of crop diversity, showing the linkages between conservation, sustainable use and seed systems.*

plant breeding which in turn must feed into seed delivery systems. In many countries and regions, there is a lack of these linkages between these three modules of the PGRFA management continuum [131] (**Figure 4**).

This continuum approach is also relevant for the efforts to leverage farmers' varieties/landraces to enhance on-farm crop diversity and will require the concerted actions of extension workers, researchers, breeders, seed enterprises and farmers. Similarly, greater cooperation at different stages in the production chain, from the development and testing of new varieties, through value-adding activities, to the opening up of new markets is essential.

#### **5.2 The enabling environment**

In order to have long-term impact on the ground, clear and non-conflictual policies are needed, together with effective delivery systems. The policies must be evidence-based and offer relevant interventions that can rapidly be deployed on the ground. Often policies can be at variance with one another, with a resulting negative impact on crop diversity, livelihoods and/or diets. For example, subsidies for promoting staple crops may have a negative impact on the cultivation of minor, but highly nutritious and resilient crops and varieties [16]. Addressing this, FAO developed *Guidelines for Developing a National Strategy for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture* [132]. These guidelines support countries in developing national strategies for PGRFA, which include identifying a national vision, goals and objectives, and the corresponding plan of action, including responsibilities, resources, and timeframes for activities. They take into account each country's needs, capacities and constraints.

Efforts must continue to target the development of appropriate national strategies and policies to promote the diversification of cropping systems, including the on-farm conservation and use of underutilized species, enable R&D and the uptake of their outputs. The Second GPA [5] highlights the importance of conservation and sustainable use of crop diversity in terms of policy and capacity development. National policies should aim to strengthen capacities in crop improvement in order to produce varieties that are specifically adapted to local environments. These policies may include appropriate for the protection of new varieties – as applicable, varietal release and seed certification – or other appropriate quality assurance regimes. These would promote and strengthen their use and ensure that they are included in national agricultural development strategies.

#### *On-Farm Crop Diversity for Advancing Food Security and Nutrition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96067*

Building national programmes and institutional capacities is critically important as a means to promote public awareness on the importance of the diversity of PGRFA [5, 131]. The support to policy-makers as well as training and capacity building for scientists, breeders, extension specialists, seed producers, farmers, indigenous peoples and local communities on themes that enable the promotion of the development and commercialization of all crop varieties, primarily farmers' varieties, landraces and underutilized species, is recognized as a fundamental necessity [3]. Relevant topics for such training and capacity building activities include activities that promote the increased on-farm management of crop diversity such as the identification of all suitable materials and the development and implementation of sustainable management practices, postharvest processing and marketing methods and the documentation of relevant local and traditional knowledge. Additional activities include those that promote establishing, running and advising local small-scale seed enterprises.

The Second GPA [5] provides guidance on the human and institutional capabilities that should be strengthened for the conservation and sustainable use of PGRFA, including farmers' varieties/landraces. These are summarized below:


plant breeding which in turn must feed into seed delivery systems. In many countries and regions, there is a lack of these linkages between these three modules of

*Continuum of crop diversity, showing the linkages between conservation, sustainable use and seed systems.*

This continuum approach is also relevant for the efforts to leverage farmers' varieties/landraces to enhance on-farm crop diversity and will require the concerted actions of extension workers, researchers, breeders, seed enterprises and farmers. Similarly, greater cooperation at different stages in the production chain, from the development and testing of new varieties, through value-adding activities, to the

In order to have long-term impact on the ground, clear and non-conflictual policies are needed, together with effective delivery systems. The policies must be evidence-based and offer relevant interventions that can rapidly be deployed on the ground. Often policies can be at variance with one another, with a resulting negative impact on crop diversity, livelihoods and/or diets. For example, subsidies for promoting staple crops may have a negative impact on the cultivation of minor, but highly nutritious and resilient crops and varieties [16]. Addressing this, FAO developed *Guidelines for Developing a National Strategy for Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture* [132]. These guidelines support countries in developing national strategies for PGRFA, which include identifying a national vision, goals and objectives, and the corresponding plan of action, including responsibilities, resources, and timeframes for activities. They take into account each country's needs, capaci-

Efforts must continue to target the development of appropriate national strategies and policies to promote the diversification of cropping systems, including the on-farm conservation and use of underutilized species, enable R&D and the uptake of their outputs. The Second GPA [5] highlights the importance of conservation and sustainable use of crop diversity in terms of policy and capacity development. National policies should aim to strengthen capacities in crop improvement in order to produce varieties that are specifically adapted to local environments. These policies may include appropriate for the protection of new varieties – as applicable, varietal release and seed certification – or other appropriate quality assurance regimes. These would promote and strengthen their use and ensure that they are

the PGRFA management continuum [131] (**Figure 4**).

*Landraces - Traditional Variety and Natural Breed*

included in national agricultural development strategies.

opening up of new markets is essential.

**5.2 The enabling environment**

**Figure 4.**

ties and constraints.

**16**

• Communicating effectively about the many benefits of crop diversity to food security and sustainable livelihoods is critical to the success of any intervention. Priority Activity 18 highlights the importance of national public awareness programmes and the development of international links and collaborative mechanisms such as networks, involving different sectors, agencies and stakeholders. The aim is to increase the value of crop diversity by bringing this information to the attention of policy-makers and the general public.

## **6. Conclusions**

Five years after the world committed through the SDG to end hunger, food insecurity and all forms of malnutrition, we are not on track to achieve these objectives by 2030. The sense of urgency is even more pressing due to the looming 2030 deadline of the SDGs, which underscores the need to 'think outside of the box'. Options for addressing food insecurity and malnutrition should include increasing the diversity of crops and varieties cultivated. This chapter highlighted the danger of the continued overreliance on a few crops and their varieties. It prescribed the means for incorporating a wider diversity of farmers' varieties/landraces into crop production systems. These local crop genetic resources tend to be adapted to low input production systems, which is prevalent in many food insecure countries of the world. The underlying premise is that improving agricultural production while using the diverse plant genetic resources available can benefit directly the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and farming communities. The ensuing result is a positive impact on food security and nutrition, environmental resilience and effective management of crop diversity.

The Priority Activities of the Second GPA provide guidance for the enhanced integration of farmers' varieties/landraces into cropping systems. These include recommendations for promoting on-farm crop diversity directly and the conservation of these critical resources in genebanks. The Second GPA also addresses continued genetic improvement of germplasm and suitable seed delivery systems, especially those that are community-based and are tailored to low input production systems. Advances in molecular genetics, phenotyping and computing capacities enhance the prospects of generating compelling R&D outputs. In the same vein, policies and strategic partnerships – at local, national, regional and global levels – that facilitate the participation of a multiplicity of stakeholders are also critically important.

#### **Notes/thanks/other declarations**

#### © FAO, 2021

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

**Author details**

**19**

Bonnie Furman\*, Arshiya Noorani and Chikelu Mba

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: bonnie.furman@fao.org

*On-Farm Crop Diversity for Advancing Food Security and Nutrition*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96067*

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*On-Farm Crop Diversity for Advancing Food Security and Nutrition DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96067*

• Communicating effectively about the many benefits of crop diversity to food

intervention. Priority Activity 18 highlights the importance of national public awareness programmes and the development of international links and collaborative mechanisms such as networks, involving different sectors, agencies and stakeholders. The aim is to increase the value of crop diversity by bringing this information to the attention of policy-makers and the general

Five years after the world committed through the SDG to end hunger, food insecurity and all forms of malnutrition, we are not on track to achieve these objectives by 2030. The sense of urgency is even more pressing due to the looming 2030 deadline of the SDGs, which underscores the need to 'think outside of the box'. Options for addressing food insecurity and malnutrition should include increasing the diversity of crops and varieties cultivated. This chapter highlighted the danger of the continued overreliance on a few crops and their varieties. It prescribed the means for incorporating a wider diversity of farmers' varieties/landraces into crop production systems. These local crop genetic resources tend to be adapted to low input production systems, which is prevalent in many food insecure countries of the world. The underlying premise is that improving agricultural production while using the diverse plant genetic resources available can benefit directly the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and farming communities. The ensuing result is a positive impact on food security and nutrition, environmental resilience and

The Priority Activities of the Second GPA provide guidance for the enhanced integration of farmers' varieties/landraces into cropping systems. These include recommendations for promoting on-farm crop diversity directly and the conservation of these critical resources in genebanks. The Second GPA also addresses continued genetic improvement of germplasm and suitable seed delivery systems, especially those that are community-based and are tailored to low input production systems. Advances in molecular genetics, phenotyping and computing capacities enhance the prospects of generating compelling R&D outputs. In the same vein, policies and strategic partnerships – at local, national, regional and global levels – that facilitate the participation of a multiplicity of stakeholders are also critically

The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the Food and Agriculture Organization of

security and sustainable livelihoods is critical to the success of any

*Landraces - Traditional Variety and Natural Breed*

public.

**6. Conclusions**

important.

© FAO, 2021

the United Nations.

**18**

effective management of crop diversity.

**Notes/thanks/other declarations**

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
