Preface

Diamond offers many advantages over other wide-bandgap materials such as silicon carbide (SiC), gallium nitride (GaN), and others. Noticeable among these advantages is the method of fabrication. Fabrication costs of diamond-based electronics have decreased due to the advent of chemical vapour deposition (CVD). Other advantages include large Young's modulus and hardness values, which makes diamond ideal for protective coating applications. Diamond tools are used extensively in mining and construction engineering. Moreover, due to the extremely low coefficient of friction, diamond is used as a solid lubricant in outer space. Its superior mechanical properties, as well as high thermal conductivity, make diamond the best candidate for thermal management in extreme environments like outer space. Diamond is also radiation-hard; therefore, it is used as a high-energy particle detector in extreme physics experiments like fusion and fission.

The transparency of diamond across the wide electromagnetic wave spectrum makes it a material of choice for high-power laser windows, microwave power transmission gyrotron windows, and more. It is electrically insulating with high breakdown voltage and low dielectric constant. Doping diamond with boron or phosphorous makes it a useful semiconductor. Its chemical stability also makes it ideal for highly aggressive environments. The most striking property of diamondbased electrochemical sensors is diamond's high overpotential for hydrogen and oxygen evolution. There are also reports of capturing CO2 greenhouse gas with diamond material by using the artificial photosynthesis principle. Due to its inertness in the biological environment, there have been attempts at using diamonds in the fabrication of neurons and other biological sensors. Nanocrystalline diamond's field electron emission properties allow the material to be used in cold cathode tube engineering applications. It has the highest sound velocity and thus it is the material of choice for surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices.

In recent years, much effort has been made in exploiting diamond's different vacancy defect centers for quantum applications. This book examines the properties of diamond and its numerous potential applications.

> **Awadesh Mallik** IMO-IMOMEC, Hasselt University, Diepenbeek, Belgium

**1**

Section 1

Introduction

Section 1 Introduction

**3**

**Figure 1.**

**Chapter 1**

**1. Introduction**

*Awadesh Kumar Mallik*

Introductory Chapter: Engineering

Science is the knowledge of the existing laws and principles, whereas, engineering is the application of such scientific knowledge in building/designing/creating something useful for the humans, and such engineered tools/devices/processes are collectively known as technology. Knowledge about diamond materials is in existence since its early discovery along the river beds or in the mines, as early as from the 4th century BC (**Figure 1**). It was the hardest known stone which were "artfully" cut and polished to shine so beautifully that lured the kings and queens over centuries [1]. The cutting and polishing technology of these rarely found stones was popularly used to make jewellery. The diamond dust particles that are generated during jewellery stone making or the small sized stones from mines which can not be used in jewellery making, are always used as abrasives. Because of its extreme hardness, it was used for engraving other stones or grinding other materials. However, the industrial use of diamond in cutting tools has become possible with the advent of high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) diamonds in the late 20th Century [2]. The rarity of mined diamonds made them precious and was unaffordable for the average income people. A new process called chemical vapour deposition (CVD) [3] has made it possible now to grow gem quality diamonds for the affordable jewellery application [4]. There is another method where oxygen deficient TNT/RDX

Applications of Diamond

*A brief timeline with respect to the different milestones in diamond material history.*

#### **Chapter 1**

## Introductory Chapter: Engineering Applications of Diamond

*Awadesh Kumar Mallik*

#### **1. Introduction**

Science is the knowledge of the existing laws and principles, whereas, engineering is the application of such scientific knowledge in building/designing/creating something useful for the humans, and such engineered tools/devices/processes are collectively known as technology. Knowledge about diamond materials is in existence since its early discovery along the river beds or in the mines, as early as from the 4th century BC (**Figure 1**). It was the hardest known stone which were "artfully" cut and polished to shine so beautifully that lured the kings and queens over centuries [1]. The cutting and polishing technology of these rarely found stones was popularly used to make jewellery. The diamond dust particles that are generated during jewellery stone making or the small sized stones from mines which can not be used in jewellery making, are always used as abrasives. Because of its extreme hardness, it was used for engraving other stones or grinding other materials. However, the industrial use of diamond in cutting tools has become possible with the advent of high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) diamonds in the late 20th Century [2]. The rarity of mined diamonds made them precious and was unaffordable for the average income people. A new process called chemical vapour deposition (CVD) [3] has made it possible now to grow gem quality diamonds for the affordable jewellery application [4]. There is another method where oxygen deficient TNT/RDX

#### **Figure 1.**

*A brief timeline with respect to the different milestones in diamond material history.*

explosive is detonated to create diamond nanoparticles (**Figure 2**). These detonation nanodiamonds (DND) [5] are now extensively used as nucleation seeds for the CVD growth of diamond. However, the detonation process (neither ultrasonic cavitation [6] nor microplasma processing [7]) can not make gemstone quality (**Figure 3**) larger diamond crystals, whereas, HPHT can make gemstones, but they are limited in size [8] and of inferior quality diamond with defects or foreign inclusion [9]. Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder. For the millennium generation, diamond jewellery is losing its charm and attraction. Other than aesthetic value, because of the stone's other exceptional material properties [10], like thermal conductivity, optical transparency over wide electromagnetic spectrum, velocity of sound waves, tensile strength, doping conductivity etc., diamond can also be used for the greater

**5**

**Table 1.**

*Introductory Chapter: Engineering Applications of Diamond*

Young's Modulus\* 1100 GPa Poisson's ratio 0.1 Co-efficients of friction 0.1 Wear resistance\* 10−7 mm3

Specific heat at 20 °C 0.502 J/g-K

Sound velocity\* 17,500 m/s Density 3.515 g/cm3 Atomic Density\* 1.77 × 1023 cm−3

Breakdown Voltage\* 107

Absorption co-efficient ≤ 0.10 cm−1 at 10 μm Refractive index 2.38 @ 10 μm, 2.41 @ 500 nm Photoluminescence Nitrogen NV, silicon SiV vacancy

Extreme conditions Graphitisation at T > 700 °C in an

*Diamond property and their engineering applications (\* highest among all materials).*

benefits of the human society [11, 12], like making faster and smaller future electronics, quantum computers, high power lasers, nuclear energy, capturing carbon for reducing its footprint in the environment [13], medical devices for patients [14] or even water purification [15] for a better standard of living (**Table 1**). This chapter lists some of the engineering applications where the scientific knowledge of the diamond material property has been used to build/design/create something useful

**Property Value Application** Hardness\* [16] 100 GPa Grinding abrasive,

/N-m

0.8 × 10 −6 /K

Debye temperature\* 1860 ± 10 K Acoustic devices [26, 27]

Bandgap 5.45 eV Power electronics packaging

V/m

Negative electron affinity −1.5 eV (H-terminated) Electron field emitter [37]

UV cut off @ 225 nm & absorptions at 2.5–6.5 μm with theoretical 71% transmission

centres Corrosion resistant Chemically inert to acids Electrodes in electro-chemical

Biocompatible Inert to biological cells [46] Medical devices [14] Radiation hard 43 eV atomic displacement energy Nuclear detector [47, 48],

power supply [50] Nuclear battery Encapsulation of radio-isotopes

oxygen containing, and 1500 °C in an inert atmosphere

[28–30] Electrical resistivity 10 13–10 16 <sup>Ω</sup>-cm

2000 W/m-K Heat spreader [23], High

10−1-104 Ω-m Electronic sensors, devices

Cutting tool [17, 18], Tribology [19–21], mechanical applications [22]

temperature application [24, 25]

[34–36]

Photonics [38, 39], Power transmission windows [40], Jewellery [41], Quantum computing [42–44]

cells [45]

instruments [49], Betavoltaics

High pressure cell anvils [51, 52]

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96659*

for the people on earth.

Thermal conductivity at

Thermal expansion co-efficient at 300 K

Doped [31–33] semiconductor resistivity

IR to UV optical transparency

300 K\*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Four different sources of diamond. (images are from GIA and Adamas websites).*

#### **Figure 3.**

*A relative evaluation of the laboratory grown with their mined source of the material.*

*Engineering Applications of Diamond*

explosive is detonated to create diamond nanoparticles (**Figure 2**). These detonation nanodiamonds (DND) [5] are now extensively used as nucleation seeds for the CVD growth of diamond. However, the detonation process (neither ultrasonic cavitation [6] nor microplasma processing [7]) can not make gemstone quality (**Figure 3**) larger diamond crystals, whereas, HPHT can make gemstones, but they are limited in size [8] and of inferior quality diamond with defects or foreign inclusion [9]. Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder. For the millennium generation, diamond jewellery is losing its charm and attraction. Other than aesthetic value, because of the stone's other exceptional material properties [10], like thermal conductivity, optical transparency over wide electromagnetic spectrum, velocity of sound waves, tensile strength, doping conductivity etc., diamond can also be used for the greater

**4**

**Figure 3.**

**Figure 2.**

*Four different sources of diamond. (images are from GIA and Adamas websites).*

*A relative evaluation of the laboratory grown with their mined source of the material.*

benefits of the human society [11, 12], like making faster and smaller future electronics, quantum computers, high power lasers, nuclear energy, capturing carbon for reducing its footprint in the environment [13], medical devices for patients [14] or even water purification [15] for a better standard of living (**Table 1**). This chapter lists some of the engineering applications where the scientific knowledge of the diamond material property has been used to build/design/create something useful for the people on earth.


#### **Table 1.**

*Diamond property and their engineering applications (\* highest among all materials).*

### **2. Mechanical engineering**

The oldest (engineering) application of diamond has been cutting and polishing. Diamond is the hardest and the strongest materials with highly covalent C-C bonding. It is strong along certain crystallographic planes, in certain directions, due to variable packing density of carbon atoms. Present day scientific knowledge about the diamond crystal structure, chemistry and its other material property was developed much later, than the art of making diamond jewellery was mastered by the ancient craftsmen since the middle ages. Geologists developed the Mohs scale of hardness as shown in **Figure 4** on the basis of the relative hardness between different minerals.

However, much later on when the modern-day science started to develop, scientist found that the indentation hardness values in GPa [53] is the highest for diamond materials. **Figure 5** compares the GPa hardness of different engineering materials. It can be found that hardened steel has only 7 GPa of hardness whereas, diamond has as high as 115 GPa. However, depending on the various factors like, the amount of defects present inside like dislocations, foreign elements, single or polycrystalline diamond, CVD or HPHT grown, crystallographic planes and directions, the hardness values can vary from 25–100 GPa. Due to such high hardness value, it has been used as grinding, lapping and polishing material in the form of slurries, paste, impregnated metallic disc or paper as shown in **Figure 6**.

Diamond carbon atoms are arranged in two inter-penetrating FCC crystal lattice of a diamond cubic structure where the covalent bond length is 0.154 nm with tetrahedral angle of 109.5° between them. The highly covalent nature (deep and symmetric potential well) of the C-C bond makes diamond's Young's modulus tensile strength and the thermal expansion co-efficient, the highest among all the solid materials. The high molecular weight polyethylene polymer which are used for protective armour application has the least tensile strength (about 1 GPa) in the **Figure 7**. The woods (11 GPa) that are used to build houses, or the human teeth enamel (55 GPa) for breaking food and even the structural steel material (200 GPa) have much less stiffness or flexibility i.e. the ability to resist deformation than diamond (>1200 GPa).


**7**

**Figure 5.**

**Figure 6.**

*Diamond abrasive application.*

*Introductory Chapter: Engineering Applications of Diamond*

Due to its extreme hardness and strength, it has been traditionally used as cutting tools [54] in machining application as shown in **Figure 8**. Polycrystalline diamond cutting tools of different shapes and sizes are shown. They are used for the processing of natural stones starting from the block extraction in quarries through the intermediate steps of production to the final step of polishing the final product. Diamond tools are extensively used in the construction industry for the cutting and drilling of the concretes, asphalt and other materials. The traditional use of diamond has been for polishing glass, ceramics and the other hard metals, as already described before. Various types of metal bonded or pre-alloyed (cobalt) powders are mixed with synthetic diamond powder by hot pressing or sintering for

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96659*

*A relative comparison of the hardness of different materials.*

**Figure 4.** *Mohs scale of hardness of different materials.*

*Introductory Chapter: Engineering Applications of Diamond DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96659*

*Engineering Applications of Diamond*

**2. Mechanical engineering**

The oldest (engineering) application of diamond has been cutting and polishing. Diamond is the hardest and the strongest materials with highly covalent C-C bonding. It is strong along certain crystallographic planes, in certain directions, due to variable packing density of carbon atoms. Present day scientific knowledge about the diamond crystal structure, chemistry and its other material property was developed much later, than the art of making diamond jewellery was mastered by the ancient craftsmen since the middle ages. Geologists developed the Mohs scale of hardness as shown in **Figure 4** on the basis of the relative hardness between different minerals. However, much later on when the modern-day science started to develop, scientist found that the indentation hardness values in GPa [53] is the highest for diamond materials. **Figure 5** compares the GPa hardness of different engineering materials. It can be found that hardened steel has only 7 GPa of hardness whereas, diamond has as high as 115 GPa. However, depending on the various factors like, the amount of defects present inside like dislocations, foreign elements, single or polycrystalline diamond, CVD or HPHT grown, crystallographic planes and directions, the hardness values can vary from 25–100 GPa. Due to such high hardness value, it has been used as grinding, lapping and polishing material in the form of slurries,

Diamond carbon atoms are arranged in two inter-penetrating FCC crystal lattice of a diamond cubic structure where the covalent bond length is 0.154 nm with tetrahedral angle of 109.5° between them. The highly covalent nature (deep and symmetric potential well) of the C-C bond makes diamond's Young's modulus tensile strength and the thermal expansion co-efficient, the highest among all the solid materials. The high molecular weight polyethylene polymer which are used for protective armour application has the least tensile strength (about 1 GPa) in the **Figure 7**. The woods (11 GPa) that are used to build houses, or the human teeth enamel (55 GPa) for breaking food and even the structural steel material (200 GPa) have much less stiffness or

paste, impregnated metallic disc or paper as shown in **Figure 6**.

flexibility i.e. the ability to resist deformation than diamond (>1200 GPa).

**6**

**Figure 4.**

*Mohs scale of hardness of different materials.*

#### **Figure 5.** *A relative comparison of the hardness of different materials.*

#### **Figure 6.** *Diamond abrasive application.*

Due to its extreme hardness and strength, it has been traditionally used as cutting tools [54] in machining application as shown in **Figure 8**. Polycrystalline diamond cutting tools of different shapes and sizes are shown. They are used for the processing of natural stones starting from the block extraction in quarries through the intermediate steps of production to the final step of polishing the final product. Diamond tools are extensively used in the construction industry for the cutting and drilling of the concretes, asphalt and other materials. The traditional use of diamond has been for polishing glass, ceramics and the other hard metals, as already described before. Various types of metal bonded or pre-alloyed (cobalt) powders are mixed with synthetic diamond powder by hot pressing or sintering for

**Figure 7.** *A relative comparison of the strength of different materials.*

#### **Figure 8.**

*Diamond cutting tools application.*

the abrasive industry. It has been shown by the researchers (**Figure 8**) that a doublelayer diamond coating with micro (MCD) and nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) grains on the top of traditional Co cemented WC cutting tools not only increases the tool life but also it enhances the cutting efficiency. Such coated tools can be recycled time and again after recoating with diamond, once the top coating is worn

**9**

**Figure 9.**

*Introductory Chapter: Engineering Applications of Diamond*

[55, 56] is an important engineering application.

out. Diamond is the best protective solution for the coating service industry. Wear is the major cause of economic loss due to the energy that is lost in overcoming the mechanical friction within the moving mechanical assemblies. Diamond tribology

When current passes through electronic circuits, it heats up the devices, which even sometimes lead up to the device failures. Future generation devices will be smaller and faster, therefore there will be more current passing through per unit area of electronic circuits that will heat up the devices enormously. For efficient working of our devices, this heat needs to be thrown out of the electronic circuits, and diamond does this job the best, being the material with highest thermal conductivity (**Figure 9**). Moore's law earlier predicted that every 2 years the size of the electronics will be reduced by half. Diamond can only keep the pace of the Moore's law with time. Direct contact of diamond with electronic chips will pass the heat away from the circuits and thereby making the current to flow easily within your device for smooth operations (**Figure 10**). There are commercial suppliers, like Element Six, of such CVD diamond heat spreaders. If we compare the cooling capacity of different coolants, it is observed that diamond is five times more effective than commonly used Cu in electrical engineering. Polycrystalline diamond is alloyed/mixed with Cu/Ag/Ti metal powders and then sintered together for making composites for electronic packaging application [57, 58]. Therefore, engineers are designing future technologies like 5G/7G, radars for space or military communication with the integration of diamond in their electronic circuits. The scanning electron micrograph in **Figure 9** shows one such CVD grown polycrystalline diamond

plate like microstructure suitable for heat spreading applications.

*A relative comparison of the thermal conductivity of different materials.*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96659*

**3. Electrical engineering**

out. Diamond is the best protective solution for the coating service industry. Wear is the major cause of economic loss due to the energy that is lost in overcoming the mechanical friction within the moving mechanical assemblies. Diamond tribology [55, 56] is an important engineering application.

### **3. Electrical engineering**

*Engineering Applications of Diamond*

*A relative comparison of the strength of different materials.*

**8**

**Figure 8.**

*Diamond cutting tools application.*

**Figure 7.**

the abrasive industry. It has been shown by the researchers (**Figure 8**) that a doublelayer diamond coating with micro (MCD) and nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) grains on the top of traditional Co cemented WC cutting tools not only increases the tool life but also it enhances the cutting efficiency. Such coated tools can be recycled time and again after recoating with diamond, once the top coating is worn

When current passes through electronic circuits, it heats up the devices, which even sometimes lead up to the device failures. Future generation devices will be smaller and faster, therefore there will be more current passing through per unit area of electronic circuits that will heat up the devices enormously. For efficient working of our devices, this heat needs to be thrown out of the electronic circuits, and diamond does this job the best, being the material with highest thermal conductivity (**Figure 9**). Moore's law earlier predicted that every 2 years the size of the electronics will be reduced by half. Diamond can only keep the pace of the Moore's law with time. Direct contact of diamond with electronic chips will pass the heat away from the circuits and thereby making the current to flow easily within your device for smooth operations (**Figure 10**). There are commercial suppliers, like Element Six, of such CVD diamond heat spreaders. If we compare the cooling capacity of different coolants, it is observed that diamond is five times more effective than commonly used Cu in electrical engineering. Polycrystalline diamond is alloyed/mixed with Cu/Ag/Ti metal powders and then sintered together for making composites for electronic packaging application [57, 58]. Therefore, engineers are designing future technologies like 5G/7G, radars for space or military communication with the integration of diamond in their electronic circuits. The scanning electron micrograph in **Figure 9** shows one such CVD grown polycrystalline diamond plate like microstructure suitable for heat spreading applications.

#### **Figure 9.**

*A relative comparison of the thermal conductivity of different materials.*

**Figure 10.** *Diamond thermal management application.*

#### **4. Energy/power engineering**

As we know from our high school physics that the energy level difference between the conduction band and valence band divides materials into a. insulator with large differences, b. semiconductor - with small differences and c. metal - with overlapping of the bands. Materials like GaN (3.44 eV), SiC (2.36 eV) and Diamond (5.45 eV) have large values of band gaps and they are known as wide band gap materials. They are used in high power high temp. high freq. energy engineering applications. In order to keep pace with the Moore's law, Si is running out of gas. It is getting replaced by wide band gap materials for high power density applications (**Figure 10**). Compare to other wide band gap materials, diamond is with the highest band gap, also has the best electron–hole mobility (1945 and 2285 cm / V. s), critical breakdown voltage and the best value of the thermal expansion co-efficient. However, it is intrinsically insulator at room temperature and will become semiconductor only by suitable doping. Boron doping has made it possible to produce acceptor levels suitable for room temperature conductivity (metallic to superconductor [59, 60] based on doping concentration and temperature); but phosphorous doped n-type diamond has deep electron donor levels (0.46 eV) which only become active at high temperatures. Nitrogen also could not dope diamond to produce n-type conductivity, rather it produces NV centre defects [38] - suitable for opto-electronic engineering or quantum computer engineering. Absence of suitable n-type dopant atom for diamond, has so far limited the future prospect of diamond based electronic devices. It can only be used as single electrode - but not as transistors.

#### **5. Computer engineering**

In a maze puzzle, in order to find out "the only way out of the confinement", one has to explore all the different possible routes, one at a time, in order to look for the "single" viable solution - which is time consuming. Classical computing would take

**11**

*Introductory Chapter: Engineering Applications of Diamond*

long time to find a solution by trial and error, on the basis of its binary states of "0" and "1". Quantum mechanics gives wave particle duality i.e., quantum entities or qubits can be present simultaneously at more than one location, therefore, if qubit tries to find the way out of a maze puzzle, due to its entanglement and superposition characteristic of different states at the same time, it will be possible to find/compute the solution of maze puzzle much faster and in efficient manner. In other words, if an electron is asked to find the way out of a maze, due to its quantum nature, it will visit all the routes inside the maze simultaneously and will return with the correct maze path solution within no time! Quantum computing based on qubit has many advantages over classical computing. It can process much bigger amount of data at much less amount of time. In today's world of artificial intelligence and machine learning with increasing amount of data, the classical computing is reaching its limit of computational power. Therefore, there is greater need of increasing the computational power of today's computers. And the solution lies in quantum computers. The search for qubits started in 1980s and there are trapped ions, quantum dots or cryogenic superconductor-based quantum information processing, however, diamond advantageously offers a nitrogen vacancy NV centre based solid state room temperature qubit [61, 62]. First ever continuous-wave (CW) room-temperature solid-state maser using the NV defect in diamond was reported in 2018 [63]. There are numerous large and small start-up companies, supported by national and international government agencies [64], who are devoting research effort in coming up with a viable diamond-based quantum computer in the coming decade or so.

Boron doped diamond electrodes are used for many electrochemistry-based applications [65] like sensing, environmental, electrosynthesis, electrocatalysis for energy and devices. Chemo-mechanical polishing [66] by diamond slurries uses the combined effect of chemical reaction in addition to the mechanical abrasion of hard

IDT metallic lines are patterned onto SAW devices. Sound velocity divided by the IDT internal spacing gives the frequency of such devices, which can be used as pressure and temperature sensors under extreme heat and pressure conditions of internal combustion engine for auto-mobile industry. The frequency of SAW devices can be enhanced by the use of diamond substrate material [67] with high sound velocity. Diamond being the material with the highest acoustic wave velocity

Nitrogen vacancy (NV) centre [69] defect inside diamond crystal lattice has room temperature quantum spin states which interacts with presence of an external magnetic field. Higher the external magnetic field higher is their interaction. The energy which is required to flip the NV centre spin state would also become higher. This energy of interaction can be probed by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR) – when input microwave energy/frequency (E = hν) matches with the interaction energy, input microwave energy flips then NV centre spin state

is ideal for different sonic applications, like tweeter domes [68].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96659*

**6. Chemical engineering**

surfaces for polishing application.

**7. Sonic/acoustic engineering**

**8. Opto-electronics engineering**

#### *Introductory Chapter: Engineering Applications of Diamond DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96659*

*Engineering Applications of Diamond*

**4. Energy/power engineering**

*Diamond thermal management application.*

**Figure 10.**

**5. Computer engineering**

As we know from our high school physics that the energy level difference between the conduction band and valence band divides materials into a. insulator with large differences, b. semiconductor - with small differences and c. metal - with overlapping of the bands. Materials like GaN (3.44 eV), SiC (2.36 eV) and Diamond (5.45 eV) have large values of band gaps and they are known as wide band gap materials. They are used in high power high temp. high freq. energy engineering applications. In order to keep pace with the Moore's law, Si is running out of gas. It is getting replaced by wide band gap materials for high power density applications (**Figure 10**). Compare to other wide band gap materials, diamond is with the highest band gap, also has the best electron–hole mobility (1945 and 2285 cm / V. s), critical breakdown voltage and the best value of the thermal expansion co-efficient. However, it is intrinsically insulator at room temperature and will become semiconductor only by suitable doping. Boron doping has made it possible to produce acceptor levels suitable for room temperature conductivity (metallic to superconductor [59, 60] based on doping concentration and temperature); but phosphorous doped n-type diamond has deep electron donor levels (0.46 eV) which only become active at high temperatures. Nitrogen also could not dope diamond to produce n-type conductivity, rather it produces NV centre defects [38] - suitable for opto-electronic engineering or quantum computer engineering. Absence of suitable n-type dopant atom for diamond, has so far limited the future prospect of diamond based electronic devices.

It can only be used as single electrode - but not as transistors.

In a maze puzzle, in order to find out "the only way out of the confinement", one has to explore all the different possible routes, one at a time, in order to look for the "single" viable solution - which is time consuming. Classical computing would take

**10**

long time to find a solution by trial and error, on the basis of its binary states of "0" and "1". Quantum mechanics gives wave particle duality i.e., quantum entities or qubits can be present simultaneously at more than one location, therefore, if qubit tries to find the way out of a maze puzzle, due to its entanglement and superposition characteristic of different states at the same time, it will be possible to find/compute the solution of maze puzzle much faster and in efficient manner. In other words, if an electron is asked to find the way out of a maze, due to its quantum nature, it will visit all the routes inside the maze simultaneously and will return with the correct maze path solution within no time! Quantum computing based on qubit has many advantages over classical computing. It can process much bigger amount of data at much less amount of time. In today's world of artificial intelligence and machine learning with increasing amount of data, the classical computing is reaching its limit of computational power. Therefore, there is greater need of increasing the computational power of today's computers. And the solution lies in quantum computers. The search for qubits started in 1980s and there are trapped ions, quantum dots or cryogenic superconductor-based quantum information processing, however, diamond advantageously offers a nitrogen vacancy NV centre based solid state room temperature qubit [61, 62]. First ever continuous-wave (CW) room-temperature solid-state maser using the NV defect in diamond was reported in 2018 [63]. There are numerous large and small start-up companies, supported by national and international government agencies [64], who are devoting research effort in coming up with a viable diamond-based quantum computer in the coming decade or so.

#### **6. Chemical engineering**

Boron doped diamond electrodes are used for many electrochemistry-based applications [65] like sensing, environmental, electrosynthesis, electrocatalysis for energy and devices. Chemo-mechanical polishing [66] by diamond slurries uses the combined effect of chemical reaction in addition to the mechanical abrasion of hard surfaces for polishing application.

#### **7. Sonic/acoustic engineering**

IDT metallic lines are patterned onto SAW devices. Sound velocity divided by the IDT internal spacing gives the frequency of such devices, which can be used as pressure and temperature sensors under extreme heat and pressure conditions of internal combustion engine for auto-mobile industry. The frequency of SAW devices can be enhanced by the use of diamond substrate material [67] with high sound velocity. Diamond being the material with the highest acoustic wave velocity is ideal for different sonic applications, like tweeter domes [68].

#### **8. Opto-electronics engineering**

Nitrogen vacancy (NV) centre [69] defect inside diamond crystal lattice has room temperature quantum spin states which interacts with presence of an external magnetic field. Higher the external magnetic field higher is their interaction. The energy which is required to flip the NV centre spin state would also become higher. This energy of interaction can be probed by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR) – when input microwave energy/frequency (E = hν) matches with the interaction energy, input microwave energy flips then NV centre spin state

and thereby the intensity of fluorescence drops which is detected by optical microscope. Thus, the resonance frequency provides a direct and quantitative measurement of the local external magnetic field. NV centre magnetometer has been so far explored for jam-less GPS navigation by interacting with the earth's magnetic field (Lockheed Martin is developing), surface scanning probes to magnetically characterise semiconductors, oxides and other materials, spintronics, nanoscale thermometry, marker for living cells etc.

HPHT or CVD diamond optical lenses [70] are used for wide range of spectrum from infrared to UV windows for their unique optical properties, chemical, mechanical and thermal stability under extreme conditions of high-power optical beams. They can be used as visible intraocular lens, X-ray refractive lens [71] and even for spectrometers.

#### **9. Bioengineering**

Artificial retina based on silicon chips was earlier coated with ultra nanocrystalline diamond (UNCD) for eye environment fluid protective application [72]. Nowadays diamond electrode [73] is even tried for electrical stimulation of retinal prosthetic implants [74]. Diamond surfaces have been functionalised [75] for various applications [76, 77] like biomarker, bio-chip using electrochemical reactions. Microwave plasma CVD grown single crystal diamonds [78] is also used as dosimeter detector in radiotherapy treatments for cancer [79].

#### **10. Environmental engineering**

Diamond coatings have been developed by many companies to treat industrial waste water and also to disinfect freshwater without use of any chemicals. The boron doped diamond electrodes oxidise the organic pollutant into CO2 or destroys the dirt and disinfect the germs that are present in the water. Recently a European project titled "DIACAT" has used the same boron doped diamond for direct photocatalytic conversion of CO2 into fine chemicals and fuels under visible light [80].

#### **11. Nuclear engineering**

Diamond has the best mechanical properties alongwith high thermal conductivity [81] and very low dielectric loss tangent [82], which make them the only material that can be used as power transmission windows in the gyrotrons used for fusion reactors [25]. Synthetic diamond detector designed for small field dosimetry is used as a dosimeter for synchrotron microbeam and minibeam radiotherapy to ensure highly localised and precise dose delivery [83]. Betavoltaics are converting the beta particle (high energy electrons) decay of the radioactive material into the electric current of a semiconductor material (electron–hole pair generation by ionisation), that lasts for the half-life time period of the radioactive material itself. Researchers at Bristol, UK, [84] have separated C14 radio-isotope from the nuclear power plant waste material to form diamond out of them, which can be used as a nuclear battery to power low-capacity device application for space, military or medical, like hearing aid in human body for their entire lifetime. But safety is still the main concern for its actual use.

These are some (**Figure 11**), among the many, engineering applications of diamond that are available and/or under testing, for better technologies of the future.

**13**

**Author details**

Awadesh Kumar Mallik1,2\*

**Acknowledgements**

**Figure 11.**

2 IMEC vzw, IMOMEC, Diepenbeek, Belgium

provided the original work is properly cited.

under the supervision of Prof. Ken Haenen.

*Few important engineering applications of diamond.*

\*Address all correspondence to: awadesh.mallik@uhasselt.be

1 Hasselt University, Institute for Materials Research (IMO), Diepenbeek, Belgium

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

AKM thankfully acknowledge the Research Foundation Flanders - (FWO) for his Postdoctoral Researcher fellowship grant no (12X2919N) at Hasselt University,

*Introductory Chapter: Engineering Applications of Diamond*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96659*

*Engineering Applications of Diamond*

thermometry, marker for living cells etc.

eter detector in radiotherapy treatments for cancer [79].

**10. Environmental engineering**

**11. Nuclear engineering**

the main concern for its actual use.

even for spectrometers.

**9. Bioengineering**

and thereby the intensity of fluorescence drops which is detected by optical microscope. Thus, the resonance frequency provides a direct and quantitative measurement of the local external magnetic field. NV centre magnetometer has been so far explored for jam-less GPS navigation by interacting with the earth's magnetic field (Lockheed Martin is developing), surface scanning probes to magnetically characterise semiconductors, oxides and other materials, spintronics, nanoscale

HPHT or CVD diamond optical lenses [70] are used for wide range of spectrum from infrared to UV windows for their unique optical properties, chemical, mechanical and thermal stability under extreme conditions of high-power optical beams. They can be used as visible intraocular lens, X-ray refractive lens [71] and

Artificial retina based on silicon chips was earlier coated with ultra nanocrystalline diamond (UNCD) for eye environment fluid protective application [72]. Nowadays diamond electrode [73] is even tried for electrical stimulation of retinal prosthetic implants [74]. Diamond surfaces have been functionalised [75] for various applications [76, 77] like biomarker, bio-chip using electrochemical reactions. Microwave plasma CVD grown single crystal diamonds [78] is also used as dosim-

Diamond coatings have been developed by many companies to treat industrial waste water and also to disinfect freshwater without use of any chemicals. The boron doped diamond electrodes oxidise the organic pollutant into CO2 or destroys the dirt and disinfect the germs that are present in the water. Recently a European project titled "DIACAT" has used the same boron doped diamond for direct photocatalytic conversion of CO2 into fine chemicals and fuels under visible light [80].

Diamond has the best mechanical properties alongwith high thermal conductivity [81] and very low dielectric loss tangent [82], which make them the only material that can be used as power transmission windows in the gyrotrons used for fusion reactors [25]. Synthetic diamond detector designed for small field dosimetry is used as a dosimeter for synchrotron microbeam and minibeam radiotherapy to ensure highly localised and precise dose delivery [83]. Betavoltaics are converting the beta particle (high energy electrons) decay of the radioactive material into the electric current of a semiconductor material (electron–hole pair generation by ionisation), that lasts for the half-life time period of the radioactive material itself. Researchers at Bristol, UK, [84] have separated C14 radio-isotope from the nuclear power plant waste material to form diamond out of them, which can be used as a nuclear battery to power low-capacity device application for space, military or medical, like hearing aid in human body for their entire lifetime. But safety is still

These are some (**Figure 11**), among the many, engineering applications of diamond that are available and/or under testing, for better technologies of the future.

**12**

**Figure 11.** *Few important engineering applications of diamond.*

### **Acknowledgements**

AKM thankfully acknowledge the Research Foundation Flanders - (FWO) for his Postdoctoral Researcher fellowship grant no (12X2919N) at Hasselt University, under the supervision of Prof. Ken Haenen.

### **Author details**

Awadesh Kumar Mallik1,2\*

1 Hasselt University, Institute for Materials Research (IMO), Diepenbeek, Belgium

2 IMEC vzw, IMOMEC, Diepenbeek, Belgium

\*Address all correspondence to: awadesh.mallik@uhasselt.be

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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org/10.1038/ncomms3618

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V. S. Baghdasaryan, Graphite-todiamond transformation induced by ultrasonic cavitation, Diamond and Related Materials, 17 (2008) 931. doi:10.1016/j.diamond.2008.01.112

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**19**

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*Introductory Chapter: Engineering Applications of Diamond*

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*Engineering Applications of Diamond*

s41598-019-51596-w

rsta.2007.2151

Feature, 2014.

nature25970

Feature, 2019.

diamond superconducting quantum interference devices with regrowthinduced step edge structure. Sci Rep 9**,** 15214 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/

diamond (PCD) coated Si wafers of 4 inch diameter, Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing 43 (2016) 1-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.

[67] A. K. Mallik, S. Roy, V. K. Balla, S. Bysakh, R. Bhar, Characteristics of CVD grown diamond films on langasite substrates, Journal of Coating Science and Technology, ISSN (online): 2369- 3355, 2020, 41-51. DOI: https://doi. org/10.6000/2369-3355.2019.06.02.2

[68] R. S. Balmer, J. R. Brandon, S. L. Clewes, H. K. Dhillon, J. M. Dodson, I. Friel, P. N. Inglis, T. D. Madgwick, M. L. Markham, T. P. Mollar, Chemical vapour deposition synthetic diamond: materials, technology and applications, 2009 *J. Phys.: Condens. Matter* 21 364221.

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[70] E. Woerner, C. Wild, W. Mueller-Sebert, P. Koidl, CVD-diamond optical lenses, Diamond and Related Materials, Volume 10, Issues 3-7, 2001, Pages 557-560, https://doi.org/10.1016/

S0925-9635(00)00393-9.

[71] M. Polikarpov, V. Polikarpov, I. Snigireva, A. Snigirev, Diamond X-ray Refractive Lenses with High Acceptance, Physics Procedia, Volume 84, 2016, Pages 213-220, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.phpro.2016.11.037.

[72] Mark Peplow, Artificial retina gets diamond coating, 2005, Nature,

[73] Y. Einaga, J. S. Foord, G. M. Swain, Diamond electrodes: diversity and maturity, MRS Bulletin 39 (6), 525-532.

doi:10.1038/news050328-9

mssp.2015.11.016

[60] E. Bustarret, P. Achatz, B. Sacépé, C. Chapelier, C. Marcenat, L. Ortéga, T. Klein, Metal-to-insulator transition and superconductivity in boron-doped diamond, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 366 (2007) 267-279, https://doi.org/10.1098/

[61] C. E. Bradley, J. Randall, M. H. Abobeih, R. C. Berrevoets, M. J. Degen, M. A. Bakker, M. Markham, D. J. Twitchen, and T. H. Taminiau, A Ten-Qubit Solid-State Spin Register with Quantum Memory up to One Minute, Phys. Rev. X 9, 031045 – Published 11 September 2019. DOI:https://doi. org/10.1103/PhysRevX.9.031045

[62] Elizabeth Gibney, Quantum physics: Flawed to perfection, Nature, Nature

[63] J. Breeze, E. Salvadori, J. Sathian, et al. Continuous-wave room-temperature diamond maser. Nature 555, 493- 496 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1038/

[64] Elizabeth Gibney, Quantum gold rush: the private funding pouring into quantum start-ups, Nature, News

[65] N. Yang, S. Yu, J. V. Macpherson, Y. Einaga, H. Zhao, G. Zhao, G. M. Swain, Conductive diamond: synthesis,

Reviews 48 (2018) 157-204. https://doi.

properties, and electrochemical applications, Chemical Society

org/10.1039/C7CS00757D

[66] Awadesh Kumar Mallik, Radhaballabh Bhar, Sandip Bysakh, An effort in planarising microwave plasma CVD grown polycrystalline

**18**

[75] Jorne Raymakers, Ken Haenen, Wouter Maes, Diamond surface functionalization: from gemstone to photoelectrochemical applications, **J. Mater. Chem. C**, 2019,**7**, 10134-10165, https://doi.org/10.1039/C9TC03381E

[76] A. Kuwahata, T. Kitaizumi, K. Saichi, et al., Magnetometer with nitrogen-vacancy center in a bulk diamond for detecting magnetic nanoparticles in biomedical applications. Sci Rep 10, 2483 (2020). https://doi. org/10.1038/s41598-020-59064-6

[77] M. Sobaszek, K. Siuzdak, J. Ryl, R. Bogdanowicz, G. M. Swain, The electrochemical determination of isatin at nanocrystalline boron-doped diamond electrodes: Stress monitoring of animals, Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical 306, 127592.

[78] Awadesh Kumar Mallik, Microwave plasma CVD grown single crystal diamond coatings – a review, Journal of Coating Science & Technology, 2016, 3, 75-99. DOI: http://dx.doi. org/10.6000/2369-3355.2016.03.02.4

[79] F. Marsolat, D. Tromson, N. Tranchant, M. Pomorski, D. Lazaro-Ponthus, C. Bassinet, C. Huet, S. Derreumaux, M. Chea, G. Boisserie, J. Alvarez, P. Bergonzo, Diamond dosimeter for small beam stereotactic radiotherapy, Diamond and Related Materials, Volume 33, 2013, Pages 63-70, https://doi. org/10.1016/j.diamond.2013.01.003.

[80] Fang Gao, Christoph E. Nebel**,** Electrically Conductive Diamond Membrane for Electrochemical Separation Processes. *ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces*, 2016 Jul 20;8(28): 18640-6.

[81] A.F. Popovich, V.G. Ralchenko, V.K. Balla, A.K. Mallik, A.A. Khomich, A.P.

Bolshakov, D.N. Sovyk, E.E. Ashkinazi, V.Yu. Yurov, Growth of 4″ diameter polycrystalline diamond wafers with high thermal conductivity by 915 MHz microwave plasma chemical vapour deposition, Plasma Science and Technology, 19, 035503, 2017, https:// doi.org/10.1088/2058-6272/19/3/035503.

[82] Measurement of the Complex Permittivity of Polycrystalline Diamond by the Resonator Method in the Millimeter Range, M. P. Parkhomenko, D. S. Kalenov, N. A. Fedoseev, l. S. Eremin, V. G. Ral'chenko, A. P. Bol'shakov, E. E. Ashkinazi, A. F, Popovich, V. K. Balla, and A. K. Mallik, ISSN 1541-308X, Physics of Wave Phenomena, 2015, Vol.23, No 3, Pp. 1-6. DOI:10.3103/S1541308X15030012

[83] Livingstone J, Stevenson AW, Butler DJ, Häusermann D, Adam JF. Characterization of a synthetic single crystal diamond detector for dosimetry in spatially fractionated synchrotron x-ray fields. Med Phys. 2016 Jul;43(7):4283. doi: 10.1118/1.4953833. PMID: 27370143.

[84] "Diamond-age" of power generation as nuclear batteries developed, https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=b6ME88nMnYE, last accessed on 11th February, 2021.

Section 2

Opto-Electronics

**21**
