**3. Results**

Several studies from Asian countries showed that in many cases could be visible former experience with crisis situation and it means also preparedness of a responsible government to that situation. Moreover, there might be visible cultural dimensions, which have been mentioned as the collectiveness or the individualism. Important could be fast political decisions and a respond of citizens. For instance, one excellent example is Taiwan. Taiwanese government is one of the most successful examples of crisis management implementation in the world. The first information about the virus appeared on 21st of January 2020. Taiwanese government has actively and really efficiently sent all instructions about the protection against a new form of virus to the citizens and did not try to hide any information, which is a sign of democratic and responsible government. One of the crucial tasks was a control of the healthcare supply chain affordable to the country and its citizens and a tight co-operation with the academic institutions in a matter of the antiviral

*A risk management approach to a crisis.*

drugs development. For instance, the figures by April 9th, about 79 days after first case appeared, the number of cases was 379 and deaths only 5. These numbers were much lower than the numbers in China in that time, which is a result of a quick response, geographical advantage (an Island separated by a sea), preparedness and different cultural and political approach despite of being Chinese culture, but with a totally different political attitude. When we compare the numbers of the evidence of this virus to the situation in China, by April 9, in China the number of confirmed cases was 175,74 times the number in Taiwan and the number of deaths 5,300 times the number in Taiwan (in Taiwan 4,7 cases and 0,06 deaths per day).

Another example of success might be found in Malaysia and Vietnam. Similarly, as in Taiwan, Malaysia and Vietnam are culturally close to Confucianism. It means that governmental leadership might be easier because of that collectivist feelings and a meaning of collective good is deeper incorporated in their cultures. It means hegemony of duty to society over individual needs. This was visible in those countries, where for instance citizens of Taiwan regularly wear facemasks in public despite of the fact that the evidence of COVID-19 is very low. Governments in Asia need not always remind people to wear masks, keep distance and stay home.

In Malaysia, COVID-19 infection started to spread early March and rocketed to 8 800 cases early June, but later due to the discipline and facemasks, responsibility of the citizens and government regulations obedience, the number of cases dropped. Ethnic Malay cultures in Malaysia and Indonesia promote banding together against common threats.

Malaysia is also one success example of the cultural influence, governmental approach and responsibility of citizens; however, there could also play important role the geographical indicators and a distance from the neighbouring countries. Boundaries, geographical distance, social distance and political capability might be decisive factors of successful outcome of such pandemic situation caused by a virus.

Similarly, Vietnam was able to keep the situation of their country with just 401 cases in the beginning under control; however, there might be visible not only cultural, but also political influence and more governmental control as a consequence of former historical and political development. Despite of it, Vietnam could be a success story to the world.

In the United States, the virus started to develop in early March, but in comparison the above mentioned countries, the numbers have climbed in June 2020. It might be a cultural attitude and power distance characteristics, but Americans are not unified in the rule to wear masks and abandon their personal freedom to decide personally. This might be a problem in several western countries all over the world, for instance also in Europe or even in Eastern Europe (a case of Czech Republic).

On the opposite to the U.S.A., another country at the North American continent, Canada knows as a multicultural country focused on social, health, and community principles. Canada has a different story as for instance the U.S.A. and the rest of western world (particular countries). Based on a research of Zhang and Young-Leslie who have been collecting data mainly through focus groups and surveys of Canadians from across the country, several results could indicate a cultural and political approach as well the attitudes of different cultures to the rules given by Canadian government as a result to the pandemic situation. The research showed that some rules as face masks wearing was quite common even before the COVID-19 outbreak among some cultures, for instance as a result of fair pollution or sensitivity to toxins in the air. Those cultures were from East Asia, for instance China, Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. In some cases, these inhabitants tried to avoid harsh weather or wanted to keep anonymity. In a poll conducted by Leger and the Association for Canadian Studies, 51 per cent of Canadians surveyed said they've worn masks while doing their grocery shopping. Fifty-three per cent said masks

**213**

*The Cultural Differences in the Perception and Application of Crisis Management in Tourism*

should be mandatory in public and confined spaces like shopping malls and public transit. Public acceptance of protective face masks has evolved dramatically in Canada since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, according to new psychology research from the University of Alberta. It is important to state that North-American people, a generation of people who are still alive and the middle aged or young generation never experienced Spanish flu. This could be also stated about a majority of people in the world because this flu was typical for the beginning of the 20th century and not many people are still alive from that period of time. This might be also important fact in general judgment of the behaviour of some people who do not believe in this real health problem and think this might be only made up artificially and distributed by media. However, there are again political, cultural

Zhang and Young-Leslie also found there were differences between non-Chinese-speaking Asian-Canadians and recent immigrants, where the assimilated Chinese non-Chinese speaking Asian Canadians felt to be more targeted as new immigrants, which is also an important sign of a stigma. However, based on this research and results, it could be visible that cultural influence and a period of life in different country and culture might have an influence on behaviour of people. Richard Schultz, an expert on federalism and a 40-year veteran of teaching politics at McGill University mentioned important statement on Canada, which should be discussed in order to understand the differences among the development in the epidemic outbreak in Canada and the U.S.A. There is this culture (in Canada) of … more deeply rooted community and social services. We fight about the size of government, we fight about deficits -- but when push came to shove, we said, 'Look, there's no one fighting this.' … it does say something to me about the vast cultural difference between the United States and Canada. "Professor Schulz continues" Political scholars have long seen Canada as one of the world's most decentralized federations -- a place where Ottawa yields much to the provinces and territories, which manage key services like health and education." (https://www.ctvnews.ca/ health/coronavirus/compared-to-u-s-canada-s-covid-19-response-a-case-study-in-

However, in the question of crisis solving, there has been a strong consensus and co-operation among the provinces and the federal government. Important is also a consensus with the communities and citizens, businesses and economic support in the time of crisis to overcome the negative consequences. Professor Schulz commented that "And yet, I think this is a highly exceptional case that we're dealing with. We have the 10 provinces and the federal government -- in a way that I haven't witnessed in the 56 years I've been studying it -- working relatively collaboratively, co-operatively together on this issue.", which confirms the above stated ideas (https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/compared-to-u-s-canada-scovid-19-response-a-case-study-in-political-civility-1.4895357) [16]. It might be more explained by one fact that Canada has had already an experience with SARS outbreak in 2004 and a positive outcome of this situation was preparedness for the epidemiological and crisis situation. Important role might play also cultural factors as has been mentioned above and the fact that Canada is a country with strongly

In Canada, the outbreak of SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) did not have an extreme impact on mortality of people because only 45 people died, but an immediate effect was evident in tourism industry. Over 1/3 of 95 000 employees in tourism was laid off (based on Smith Travel Research) after the SARS outbreak and total decrease of tourism revenue due to SARS was 500 million in Toronto, Ontario in the following months. From April to June 2004, the number of international visitors declined 14%, their spending declined 13% and the travel deficit in the income

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97779*

political-civility-1.4895357).

developed common sense feeling.

and geographical differences among countries and people.

#### *The Cultural Differences in the Perception and Application of Crisis Management in Tourism DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97779*

should be mandatory in public and confined spaces like shopping malls and public transit. Public acceptance of protective face masks has evolved dramatically in Canada since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, according to new psychology research from the University of Alberta. It is important to state that North-American people, a generation of people who are still alive and the middle aged or young generation never experienced Spanish flu. This could be also stated about a majority of people in the world because this flu was typical for the beginning of the 20th century and not many people are still alive from that period of time. This might be also important fact in general judgment of the behaviour of some people who do not believe in this real health problem and think this might be only made up artificially and distributed by media. However, there are again political, cultural and geographical differences among countries and people.

Zhang and Young-Leslie also found there were differences between non-Chinese-speaking Asian-Canadians and recent immigrants, where the assimilated Chinese non-Chinese speaking Asian Canadians felt to be more targeted as new immigrants, which is also an important sign of a stigma. However, based on this research and results, it could be visible that cultural influence and a period of life in different country and culture might have an influence on behaviour of people.

Richard Schultz, an expert on federalism and a 40-year veteran of teaching politics at McGill University mentioned important statement on Canada, which should be discussed in order to understand the differences among the development in the epidemic outbreak in Canada and the U.S.A. There is this culture (in Canada) of … more deeply rooted community and social services. We fight about the size of government, we fight about deficits -- but when push came to shove, we said, 'Look, there's no one fighting this.' … it does say something to me about the vast cultural difference between the United States and Canada. "Professor Schulz continues" Political scholars have long seen Canada as one of the world's most decentralized federations -- a place where Ottawa yields much to the provinces and territories, which manage key services like health and education." (https://www.ctvnews.ca/ health/coronavirus/compared-to-u-s-canada-s-covid-19-response-a-case-study-inpolitical-civility-1.4895357).

However, in the question of crisis solving, there has been a strong consensus and co-operation among the provinces and the federal government. Important is also a consensus with the communities and citizens, businesses and economic support in the time of crisis to overcome the negative consequences. Professor Schulz commented that "And yet, I think this is a highly exceptional case that we're dealing with. We have the 10 provinces and the federal government -- in a way that I haven't witnessed in the 56 years I've been studying it -- working relatively collaboratively, co-operatively together on this issue.", which confirms the above stated ideas (https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/compared-to-u-s-canada-scovid-19-response-a-case-study-in-political-civility-1.4895357) [16]. It might be more explained by one fact that Canada has had already an experience with SARS outbreak in 2004 and a positive outcome of this situation was preparedness for the epidemiological and crisis situation. Important role might play also cultural factors as has been mentioned above and the fact that Canada is a country with strongly developed common sense feeling.

In Canada, the outbreak of SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) did not have an extreme impact on mortality of people because only 45 people died, but an immediate effect was evident in tourism industry. Over 1/3 of 95 000 employees in tourism was laid off (based on Smith Travel Research) after the SARS outbreak and total decrease of tourism revenue due to SARS was 500 million in Toronto, Ontario in the following months. From April to June 2004, the number of international visitors declined 14%, their spending declined 13% and the travel deficit in the income

*Issues on Risk Analysis for Critical Infrastructure Protection*

drugs development. For instance, the figures by April 9th, about 79 days after first case appeared, the number of cases was 379 and deaths only 5. These numbers were much lower than the numbers in China in that time, which is a result of a quick response, geographical advantage (an Island separated by a sea), preparedness and different cultural and political approach despite of being Chinese culture, but with a totally different political attitude. When we compare the numbers of the evidence of this virus to the situation in China, by April 9, in China the number of confirmed cases was 175,74 times the number in Taiwan and the number of deaths 5,300 times

Another example of success might be found in Malaysia and Vietnam. Similarly, as in Taiwan, Malaysia and Vietnam are culturally close to Confucianism. It means that governmental leadership might be easier because of that collectivist feelings and a meaning of collective good is deeper incorporated in their cultures. It means hegemony of duty to society over individual needs. This was visible in those countries, where for instance citizens of Taiwan regularly wear facemasks in public despite of the fact that the evidence of COVID-19 is very low. Governments in Asia need not always remind people to wear masks, keep distance and stay home.

In Malaysia, COVID-19 infection started to spread early March and rocketed to 8 800 cases early June, but later due to the discipline and facemasks, responsibility of the citizens and government regulations obedience, the number of cases dropped. Ethnic Malay cultures in Malaysia and Indonesia promote banding together against

Malaysia is also one success example of the cultural influence, governmental approach and responsibility of citizens; however, there could also play important role the geographical indicators and a distance from the neighbouring countries. Boundaries, geographical distance, social distance and political capability might be decisive factors of successful outcome of such pandemic situation caused by a virus. Similarly, Vietnam was able to keep the situation of their country with just 401 cases in the beginning under control; however, there might be visible not only cultural, but also political influence and more governmental control as a consequence of former historical and political development. Despite of it, Vietnam could be a

In the United States, the virus started to develop in early March, but in comparison the above mentioned countries, the numbers have climbed in June 2020. It might be a cultural attitude and power distance characteristics, but Americans are not unified in the rule to wear masks and abandon their personal freedom to decide personally. This might be a problem in several western countries all over the world, for instance also in Europe or even in Eastern Europe (a case of Czech Republic). On the opposite to the U.S.A., another country at the North American continent, Canada knows as a multicultural country focused on social, health, and community principles. Canada has a different story as for instance the U.S.A. and the rest of western world (particular countries). Based on a research of Zhang and Young-Leslie who have been collecting data mainly through focus groups and surveys of Canadians from across the country, several results could indicate a cultural and political approach as well the attitudes of different cultures to the rules given by Canadian government as a result to the pandemic situation. The research showed that some rules as face masks wearing was quite common even before the COVID-19 outbreak among some cultures, for instance as a result of fair pollution or sensitivity to toxins in the air. Those cultures were from East Asia, for instance China, Korea, Vietnam, and Japan. In some cases, these inhabitants tried to avoid harsh weather or wanted to keep anonymity. In a poll conducted by Leger and the Association for Canadian Studies, 51 per cent of Canadians surveyed said they've worn masks while doing their grocery shopping. Fifty-three per cent said masks

the number in Taiwan (in Taiwan 4,7 cases and 0,06 deaths per day).

**212**

common threats.

success story to the world.

from international tourism was over 1.1 billion CAD together with the decrease of employment in tourism by 2.4% ([17]; KPMG; PKF Consulting). Based on the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, Federal government has a power to act in a matter of health protection in a case of health protection of the whole country despite a fact that health care, public health lies under the jurisdiction of the provinces. Some formerly experienced problems and failings during SARS outbreak in 2004 lead to a stronger federalism in this question, which had an influence on Canadian story in pandemic fight. It might be a real problem in the second largest country in the world, but the outcome was not catastrophic and when we compare the situation in the U.S.A., Canada was able to cope the crisis situation much more efficiently. Fierlbeck commented that Canada, because of historical circumstances, really has what I would call a reasonable institutional framework for co-ordination between jurisdictions". (https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/compared-tou-s-canada-s-covid-19-response-a-case-study-in-political-civility-1.4895357).

The success lesson could be taught from Slovakia in the 1st wave of COVID-19 situation, where mostly several key factors played the most important role, the quick introduction of protective rules, which were especially rooted in wearing protective masks and gloves. The strict rules were implemented in order to protect citizens as for instance a penalty of breaking a quarantine order. Slovakia belonged to the first countries in the world (second after the Czech Republic in Europe) to order face masks to become mandatory inside buildings (stores, schools, etc.) and in public spaces. This decision was made even earlier as the World Health Organization advised people to wear masks in public. By March 13, one week after Slovakia confirmed its first coronavirus case the Slovak governmental representatives appeared in masks in front of media and demonstrated their compassion with the existing situation and the seriousness of the health care problem caused by the COVID-19 virus. The message was sent to the public: "Protect others and you'll be protected … It's not embarrassing. It helps everyone." Important decision was a nationwide lockdown. The reason might be a fear of the situation in the world, especially in Italy and Spain and a fear to cope a pandemic situation, which could be overwhelming and devastating for the Slovak healthcare system. (https:// www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2020/05/slovakia-mask-coronaviruspandemic-success/611545/) [18].

When analysing the success factors of Slovakia in a survey about the successful measures fighting against the virus of COVID-19, the most important were classified the rule of wearing face masks, gloves, especially in very frequent spaces. About 90 percent of the respondents have limited their travelling, either by public transport or by car. This had a strong consequence on tourism and travel agencies and airports experienced a strong decline of passengers (about 80%). (https://newsnow.tasr.sk/featured/ survey-over-90-of-slovaks-view-coronavirus-related-measures-as-appropriate/)

Unfortunately, this is not a case of the 2nd COVID-19 wave in Slovakia, where the situation is becoming more difficult. Slovakia and Czech Republic are culturally very close countries in some aspects and at the beginning of the pandemic situation in Slovakia was second after Czech Republic to implement face masks duty after the outbreak of COVID-19 in their countries. Both countries have a democratic government, which was elected in free elections and the development in fighting the epidemic situation was at the beginning similar, despite a slightly higher numbers in Czech Republic due to the number of citizens and a proximity to western countries, which were more affected in that period of time. In the first wave of pandemic situation both countries were cases of good results. In June the situation has been improved and both countries opened the economy, schools and some travelling to safe countries was fully introduced. However, it is visible from the development in

**215**

**4. Conclusion**

*The Cultural Differences in the Perception and Application of Crisis Management in Tourism*

both countries that Slovak citizens were more careful in opening and did not abandon some formerly introduced regulations. Slovaks are people who obey the rules and it is more collectivist society with a masculine characteristic. This cannot be fully generalized, but when we compare Czechs and Slovaks, there are differences. This might be a reason why there exist now such differences in the number of infected people, mortality and 14-day cumulative number of cases per 100 000 when we compare both countries now. In Czech Republic (now takes 2nd place in Europe in the daily increase of numbers of infected people), there are 49 290 cases, daily increase ranks from 2000 to over 3000 infected people, mortality is 503 and 14th day cumulative number of COVID-19 cases per 100 000 is 37,9. The expectation based on the European Centre for the Prevention and Control of Diseases the expected daily increase in Czech Republic could be 8000 cases a day. Finally, the government decided to renew the meetings of the General Crises Committee and decided about a personal change of a Minister of Health Care. In Slovakia, on the other hand are 6 677 infected, mortality is 40 and the 14-day cumulative number of COVID-19 is 37,9 per 100 000. Slovakia had to restrict the travelling rules from Czech Republic and there are several strict restrictions, which will try to avoid spreading the virus. Slovak government tries despite very friendly contacts with Czech government to look at the case as the negative externality, which might be a danger for Slovak citizens. Culturally, Czech people could be characterized as more feminine society (in comparison to Slovakia as more masculine society), more individualistic society closer to western European countries and a society with not such a tendency to obey rules (refusal to wear masks inside, for instance) and keep all restrictions, especially in big cities. Cultural dimension, political rule, governance and also the number of visitors with tourism or business aim might be a decisive reason for Czech Republic to be in such a situation. In all aspects, economy and consequently even tourism suffers more when people are not administered properly or there is lack of control from a government. Obviously, this pandemic situation might lead to stronger governmental role in a country and in tourism business as well. It might be a lesson for the countries and governments of those countries how to solve the situation more effectively. The effective crisis management and organizational learning processes should be helpful not only to understand the differences among cultures, but especially could solve problems in a faster and progressive way.

Competitiveness of countries, which is based not only on comparative advantage, but also the competitive forces as for instance is safety and security, has tremendous impact on economy and tourism as well. The world is in continual change, which could be positive or negative. Some changes might be totally unexpected and devastating for the economy and the most dangerous are consequences for the human´s health and life, which is a case of pandemic COVID-19, which affected the whole world since January 2000. In this chapter, we tried to discuss not only managerial preparation and the existence of models of crisis and management from former crisis situations, but also preparedness of several countries to cope critical situation, the role of mass media and business culture and especially the influence of cultural differences in managerial decisions, in behavior of citizens generally and in the discussed countries. Hofstede [4] explained five dimensions of national culture, which influence a behavior of different cultures and it means also countries with people living predominantly from this cultural group. Those typical independent dimensions are: power distance; uncertainty avoidance; individualism versus collectivism; masculinity versus femininity; and long-term versus

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97779*

#### *The Cultural Differences in the Perception and Application of Crisis Management in Tourism DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97779*

both countries that Slovak citizens were more careful in opening and did not abandon some formerly introduced regulations. Slovaks are people who obey the rules and it is more collectivist society with a masculine characteristic. This cannot be fully generalized, but when we compare Czechs and Slovaks, there are differences.

This might be a reason why there exist now such differences in the number of infected people, mortality and 14-day cumulative number of cases per 100 000 when we compare both countries now. In Czech Republic (now takes 2nd place in Europe in the daily increase of numbers of infected people), there are 49 290 cases, daily increase ranks from 2000 to over 3000 infected people, mortality is 503 and 14th day cumulative number of COVID-19 cases per 100 000 is 37,9. The expectation based on the European Centre for the Prevention and Control of Diseases the expected daily increase in Czech Republic could be 8000 cases a day. Finally, the government decided to renew the meetings of the General Crises Committee and decided about a personal change of a Minister of Health Care. In Slovakia, on the other hand are 6 677 infected, mortality is 40 and the 14-day cumulative number of COVID-19 is 37,9 per 100 000. Slovakia had to restrict the travelling rules from Czech Republic and there are several strict restrictions, which will try to avoid spreading the virus. Slovak government tries despite very friendly contacts with Czech government to look at the case as the negative externality, which might be a danger for Slovak citizens. Culturally, Czech people could be characterized as more feminine society (in comparison to Slovakia as more masculine society), more individualistic society closer to western European countries and a society with not such a tendency to obey rules (refusal to wear masks inside, for instance) and keep all restrictions, especially in big cities. Cultural dimension, political rule, governance and also the number of visitors with tourism or business aim might be a decisive reason for Czech Republic to be in such a situation. In all aspects, economy and consequently even tourism suffers more when people are not administered properly or there is lack of control from a government. Obviously, this pandemic situation might lead to stronger governmental role in a country and in tourism business as well. It might be a lesson for the countries and governments of those countries how to solve the situation more effectively. The effective crisis management and organizational learning processes should be helpful not only to understand the differences among cultures, but especially could solve problems in a faster and progressive way.
