**5. Salinity stress alleviation**

Soil salinization is an aggravating issue threatening global food safety as it suppresses the plant development leading to reduced crop harvest (due to enormous formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS)) [21]. Many research reports showed the efficiency of AMF to enhance growth and crop yield under salinity stress. AMF association triggered the synthesis of plant hormones such as jasmonic acid and salicylic acid, and inorganic nutrients (P, Ca2+, N, Mg2+, and K+ ) under salt stress conditions [22]. Some mycorrhizal associated plants showed increased amount of biomass, proline, N2, and remarkable alteration in ionic uptake. AMF inoculation showed better levels of key growth regulators such as cytokinin, polyamine and strigolactone concentrations, suppressing lipid membrane peroxidation and regulation of the osmoregulation [23].

#### **6. Resilience to extreme temperatures**

Extreme temperatures such as Heat stress and Cold stress are prevalent challenges faced by plants globally. Heat stresses reduce seed germination, growth rate and biomass, and cause wilting or burning of leaves and reproductive organs, and which leads to senescence of leaves, damage and discoloration of fruit, reduction in yield, cell death, and enhanced oxidative stress [16]. Mycorrhizal plants showed encouraging growth under the conditions of high temperature [24]. AMF supports plants in cold stress and helps plant development [25] as they can retain moisture in the plant [26], increase plant secondary metabolites boosting immune system, and improve protein content to ameliorate cold stress [27].

### **7. Minimization of heavy metal toxicity**

Accumulation of heavy metals in food crops, fruits, vegetables, and soils are very hazardous [28]. Plants grown on soils with excessive Cd and Zn exhibit considerable suppression in shoot, root growth, leaf chlorosis, and even death [29]. AMF associations have shown fortified growth and crop yield under aluminum stress and other metals [30]. Heavy metals are immobilized in the internal or external surface of fungal hyphae and will be stored in their vacuoles or may chelate with some other substances in the cytoplasm, minimizing the toxicity effects [31]. Mycelia of various AMF have a high cation-exchange capacity and absorption of metals [32] and they enhance the plant biomass, that uptake important immovable nutrients like Cu, Zn, and P further nullifies the metal toxicity [33].

#### **8. Oxidative stress**

Exposure of plants to drought, salinity, heat and cold stress, other harmful conditions causes oxidative stress, an enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can be highly injurious to plants [34]. Some of the enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), and glutathione reductase (GR) prevent the production of ROS [35]. Mycorrhizal plants have proven to successfully overcome oxidative stress by improved biomass production, leaf water relations and stomatal conductance [36], other amplifying operations include improved photosynthetic rate, uptake and accumulation of minerals, assemblage of osmo-protectants, up-regulation of antioxidant enzyme activity, and change in the rhizosphere ecosystem [37]. Studies have shown the improved nutritional status of AMF plants under osmotic stress conditions resulting from deficit irrigation or salinity. Some of the substantial variations were observed in the charectorstics of phytohormones, absorption of minerals, compilation of osmolytes and secondary metabolites, and in the antioxidant execution systems. These impacts are presumed to have enhanced the nutraceutical value of yield in crops mounting to immense agronomic accomplishments [38].

#### **9. Biotic stress**

Plants encounter biotic stresses caused by pathogenic fungi, viruses, bacteria, nematodes, insects, etc. that cause diseases, infections and affect crop productivity. AMF association is known for potential biocontrol mechanisms such as antibiotic production, competitive interaction strategies among the rhizo-microbiome and pathogens, mycoparasitism, and inducing genetic expression changes able to induce systemic resistance inside the host plant [39]. AMF is reported to have biocontrol capacity over powdery mildews [40] and the nonpathogenic and saprotrophic species of Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, and Trichoderma have been utilized to reduce

**37**

**Figure 5.**

*courtesy: Groundwork BioAg).*

*Advantages of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) Production for the Profitability…*

damage caused by genetically and phenotypically similar pathogenic fungi. They are known to control soil-borne and plant diseases and studies reported that increased plant growth was seen in associated with strains of *Trichoderma, Glomus intraradices, Glomus mosseae*, and other plant growth-promoting microorganisms due to systemic resistance against plant pathogens by upregulating specific genes in the host plant [41]. There is a growing body of evidence on multifunctional prospects of AMF as efficient biocontrol agents for augmented plant productivity by enhancing crop nutrition. Many AMF act as broad biopesticides or selective agents such as mycoinsecticides, mycoacaricides, myconematicides and others [42].

AMF improves plant nutrition and helps them to cope with changing environments. Plants use inorganic phosphate (Pi) and it is the most important limiting factor for its growth. Since soluble Pi levels are low in the soil, the symbiotic interconnection with AMF will efficiently supply the needful Pi and other mineral nutrients in exchange for carbohydrates [43]. AMF expresses proteins to transfer inorganic phosphate (Pi) from the soil to colonized roots through symbiotic interfaces [44]. AMF compatible plants have two Pi uptake pathways that have different sets of phosphate transporters: a direct up take pathway through the epidermis and root hairs, and a symbiotic uptake pathway for the Pi provided by the fungus [45]. In Addition, AMF shows extraordinary symbiotic Pi uptake, by boosting the plant

AMF can improve the nutrient status, quality, and yield of the crops, AMFcolonized crops show increased levels of secondary metabolites with antioxidant [47] and enhancement of dietary quality of crops with carotenoids and volatile compounds were observed [48]. Mycorrhizal symbiosis enhances the accumulation

*Effect of mycorrhizal treatment on corn (on the left) with their control (on the right). Ohio, USA, 2019 (photo* 

mineral nutrient acquisition even with low-nutrient supply [46].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95458*

**10. Minerals and phosphorous transport**

**11. Crop yield enhancement**

*Advantages of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF) Production for the Profitability… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95458*

damage caused by genetically and phenotypically similar pathogenic fungi. They are known to control soil-borne and plant diseases and studies reported that increased plant growth was seen in associated with strains of *Trichoderma, Glomus intraradices, Glomus mosseae*, and other plant growth-promoting microorganisms due to systemic resistance against plant pathogens by upregulating specific genes in the host plant [41]. There is a growing body of evidence on multifunctional prospects of AMF as efficient biocontrol agents for augmented plant productivity by enhancing crop nutrition. Many AMF act as broad biopesticides or selective agents such as mycoinsecticides, mycoacaricides, myconematicides and others [42].

## **10. Minerals and phosphorous transport**

*Mycorrhizal Fungi - Utilization in Agriculture and Forestry*

improve protein content to ameliorate cold stress [27].

Cu, Zn, and P further nullifies the metal toxicity [33].

**8. Oxidative stress**

agronomic accomplishments [38].

**9. Biotic stress**

**7. Minimization of heavy metal toxicity**

and biomass, and cause wilting or burning of leaves and reproductive organs, and which leads to senescence of leaves, damage and discoloration of fruit, reduction in yield, cell death, and enhanced oxidative stress [16]. Mycorrhizal plants showed encouraging growth under the conditions of high temperature [24]. AMF supports plants in cold stress and helps plant development [25] as they can retain moisture in the plant [26], increase plant secondary metabolites boosting immune system, and

Accumulation of heavy metals in food crops, fruits, vegetables, and soils are very hazardous [28]. Plants grown on soils with excessive Cd and Zn exhibit considerable suppression in shoot, root growth, leaf chlorosis, and even death [29]. AMF associations have shown fortified growth and crop yield under aluminum stress and other metals [30]. Heavy metals are immobilized in the internal or external surface of fungal hyphae and will be stored in their vacuoles or may chelate with some other substances in the cytoplasm, minimizing the toxicity effects [31]. Mycelia of various AMF have a high cation-exchange capacity and absorption of metals [32] and they enhance the plant biomass, that uptake important immovable nutrients like

Exposure of plants to drought, salinity, heat and cold stress, other harmful conditions causes oxidative stress, an enhanced production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can be highly injurious to plants [34]. Some of the enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), and glutathione reductase (GR) prevent the production of ROS [35]. Mycorrhizal plants have proven to successfully overcome oxidative stress by improved biomass production, leaf water relations and stomatal conductance [36], other amplifying operations include improved photosynthetic rate, uptake and accumulation of minerals, assemblage of osmo-protectants, up-regulation of antioxidant enzyme activity, and change in the rhizosphere ecosystem [37]. Studies have shown the improved nutritional status of AMF plants under osmotic stress conditions resulting from deficit irrigation or salinity. Some of the substantial variations were observed in the charectorstics of phytohormones, absorption of minerals, compilation of osmolytes and secondary metabolites, and in the antioxidant execution systems. These impacts are presumed to have enhanced the nutraceutical value of yield in crops mounting to immense

Plants encounter biotic stresses caused by pathogenic fungi, viruses, bacteria, nematodes, insects, etc. that cause diseases, infections and affect crop productivity. AMF association is known for potential biocontrol mechanisms such as antibiotic production, competitive interaction strategies among the rhizo-microbiome and pathogens, mycoparasitism, and inducing genetic expression changes able to induce systemic resistance inside the host plant [39]. AMF is reported to have biocontrol capacity over powdery mildews [40] and the nonpathogenic and saprotrophic species of Rhizoctonia, Fusarium, and Trichoderma have been utilized to reduce

**36**

AMF improves plant nutrition and helps them to cope with changing environments. Plants use inorganic phosphate (Pi) and it is the most important limiting factor for its growth. Since soluble Pi levels are low in the soil, the symbiotic interconnection with AMF will efficiently supply the needful Pi and other mineral nutrients in exchange for carbohydrates [43]. AMF expresses proteins to transfer inorganic phosphate (Pi) from the soil to colonized roots through symbiotic interfaces [44]. AMF compatible plants have two Pi uptake pathways that have different sets of phosphate transporters: a direct up take pathway through the epidermis and root hairs, and a symbiotic uptake pathway for the Pi provided by the fungus [45]. In Addition, AMF shows extraordinary symbiotic Pi uptake, by boosting the plant mineral nutrient acquisition even with low-nutrient supply [46].

### **11. Crop yield enhancement**

AMF can improve the nutrient status, quality, and yield of the crops, AMFcolonized crops show increased levels of secondary metabolites with antioxidant [47] and enhancement of dietary quality of crops with carotenoids and volatile compounds were observed [48]. Mycorrhizal symbiosis enhances the accumulation

#### **Figure 5.**

*Effect of mycorrhizal treatment on corn (on the left) with their control (on the right). Ohio, USA, 2019 (photo courtesy: Groundwork BioAg).*

of anthocyanins, chlorophyll, carotenoids, total soluble phenolics, tocopherols, sugars, organic acids, vitamin C, flavonoids, and mineral nutrients [49] and enhanced the biosynthesis of phytochemicals in edible plants (**Figure 5**) [50].
