Preface

"*If humans continue to cut down the Amazon, the forest may start to die off in the 2030s, destabilising South America and the world.*"

David Attenborough in his book *A Life on Our Planet* [1].

The Amazon River is the largest in the world in terms of volume and second only to the Nile in length. The climate is very warm and humid resulting in the largest tropical rainforest, which represents more than half of the world's remaining rainforests [2]. It includes parts of eight South American countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname and Venezuela. The Amazon basin covers roughly 634 million hectares, but only 529 million hectares are classified as primary forest [3]. The basin is named after the river, known in Spanish and Portuguese as 'Rio Amazonas'. That name was derived from a tribe of mighty women warriors, 'Amazons', in ancient Greek mythology [4] because back then several tribes in the region practiced headhunting for trophies [5].

The first humans migrated from Central America to the Amazon region some 13,000 years ago [6]. Francisco de Orellana was the first European to travel the length of the Amazon River [7] and found there a complex civilization in the 1540s. It is suggested that up to 10 million indigenous people lived in fortified settlements, creating ceremonial artworks and growing food in small fields. Unfortunately, that civilization was later devastated by the spread of diseases originating from Europe such as measles, smallpox and typhus.

The Amazon rainforest is an ecosystem with vertical layers differing in plants and wildlife. Trees form the forest canopy with the dense top layer shading the trees below. The next layer includes shade-tolerant shrubs that cover the lower herbaceous plants. All large mammals, many small mammals, and a few birds live at ground level, but most of the birds and all of the bats live among the upper layers. Various insects inhabit all layers, but most species inhabit the top layers. Many of the species and much of the ecology of this ecosystem remain unknown [8].

In this introduction, I attempt to answer several questions [cf. 3 and 9] about the Amazon region.

Are the Amazon rainforests Earth's lungs?

**II**

**Chapter 7 129**

**Chapter 8 147**

Development Opportunities and Problems **159**

**Chapter 9 161**

**Chapter 10 183**

**Chapter 11 195**

**Chapter 12 219**

From the "*Terra Preta de Indio*" to the "Terra Preta do Gringo": A History of Knowledge of the Amazonian Dark Earths

Bioeconomic Potential of Sustainability Indicators in a Ceramic

*Sandro Augusto Lima dos Santos, José Reinaldo da Silva Cabral de Moraes, Ires Paula de Andrade Miranda and Maria de Lourdes Pinheiro Ruivo*

Neo-Developmentalism and Regional Integration: IIRSA Impact in the

Social Changes in the Peruvian Amazon Due to Foreign Influence

Quilombo Communities and Opportunities for Market-Driven

Mechanisms for the Protection of the Amazon Forest *by Anna Kanele and Pedro Pablo Cardoso Castro*

*by Gelson Dias Florentino, Lucieta Guerreiro Martorano,* 

Ecology as Cosmology: Animal Myths of Amazonia

Production Center in the Western Amazon

Environmental Agenda in the Amazon

*by Zoran Stiperski and Tomica Hruška*

*by Pedro Pablo Cardoso Castro and Nirvia Ravena*

*by Klaus Hilbert and Jens Soentgen*

*by Alexandre Guida Navarro*

**Section 3**

The Amazon rainforest is often referred to as the "lungs of the planet." It produces oxygen through photosynthesis in the daytime but absorbs a lot of oxygen at night via respiration. Therefore, the rainforest is not a real net producer of oxygen. It does, however, absorb carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse gas; hence why the word 'lungs' is often used. Through transpiration, the rainforest releases large amounts of moisture into the atmosphere. This helps stabilize the global climate, generating rainfall at local, regional, and trans-continental scales [3]. Ricardo Galvão, former head of Brazil's National Institute for Space Research (INPE), rightly concluded: "If the Amazon is destroyed, it will be impossible to control global warming"[6].

What causes fires in the Amazon?

Fires result from either natural lightning or intentional setting by people. At least 75 percent of fires are due to human activities like farming and logging, which allow fires to spread from dry areas into the rainforest.

Shifting agriculture and cattle ranches are responsible for 80–85 percent of deforestation in the Amazon [10]. Deforestation increases the vulnerability of rainforests to fire as it dries out the forest interior.

Climate change is largely contributing to this worsening situation, as it leads to increasing average temperatures and larger and more frequent fires during the dry season. If farmers, ranchers, and land speculators start fires, these fires can easily move to the rainforest. A vicious circle is taking place as fires also reinforce global warming [11].

According to INPE, 93,485 fires have been recorded in the Brazilian rainforest in 2020 prior to November, which is 25 percent more than in the same period in 2019 [12].

Why is the Amazon rainforest in danger?

Cattle ranching and soy plantations in massive landholdings of thousands of acres are the dominant drivers of deforestation in the Amazon. New threats emerge from palm oil plantations, illegal mining, and hydropower development [13]. Forest degradation due to unsustainable selective logging practices may not be the largest problem. It is more likely that accelerating deforestation is a real concern because it may affect the global climate. If climate warming continues, a large part of the Amazon could change from rainforest to savanna. This shift would mean huge economic and ecological consequences in the form of rainfall losses. Normally rain falls for 200 days each year, and total rainfall exceeds 80 inches per year [2]. Current rains feed the region that produces two-thirds of South America's GDP and their absence would trigger large carbon emissions from forest die-off. These emissions will further worsen climate change [3].

How much of the Amazon rainforest has been destroyed?

Brazil has the power to save the greatest rainforest – or destroy it [14]. It seems that South America's natural wonder may be perilously close to the tipping point beyond which its gradual transformation into something closer to the steppe cannot be stopped or reversed, even if people lay down their axes. An area equivalent in size to Turkey and bigger than that of Texas has been lost to logging, farming, mining, roads, dams, and other forms of "development." Between August 2017 and July 2018, Brazil lost 7900 km<sup>2</sup> of Amazon forest and nearly a billion trees [15]. During the following reporting period of the INPE, the forest loss was 9205 km<sup>2</sup> from August 2018 to July 2019. Due to soaring levels of illegal deforestation, the July 2020 figures from the Brazilian Amazon alone showed a 28 percent increase in the number of fires over the same period in the year before. The INPE recently reported that between August 2019 and July 2020 a total of 11,088 km2 of rainforest were lost in Brazil; this being the greatest deforestation rate since 2008 [16]. Now the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) calls for immediate emergency measures to be implemented to ban deforestation in the Amazon for five years [11].

**V**

The restoration of forested land at a global scale is likely to be the most effective strategy to limit the rise of atmospheric carbon and mitigate climate change [17]. It is promising that some organizations around the world are planting trees at an unprecedented rate in a bid to combat global heating. For example, TreeSisters is planting 2.2 million trees each year across Africa as well as Brazil. The International Tree Foundation (ITF) is supporting local charities to work with local women to establish small nurseries of native trees at the forest fringe. These native trees are then planted directly into deforested areas. Women are the primary caretakers and can drive massive change; planting trees will make their lives better [18]. Although there is no doubt that the restoration of trees is a good strategy for climate change mitigation and wildlife conservation [17], it is important to decide the kinds of trees as well as how and where they are grown. In some contexts it has been shown that increasing tree cover can elevate fire risk if reforestation is achieved with singlespecies tree plantations, which decrease water supplies and can cause crop damage by wildlife. We must view restoration as a system and concentrate on restoring native forest ecosystems [19]. Avoiding forest fires if of utmost importance in the future, as smoke from burning forests in the Amazon has intensified glacier melt in Zongo Glacier in Bolivia fueling concern about a water crisis in South America [20]. Since the 1970s, the Peruvian Andes have lost nearly half their glacier-ice surface area. This impacts hundreds of thousands of people who use glacier water for agriculture and hydropower. In addition, the Patagonian ice fields between Chile

and Argentina are melting at a very fast rate [6].

tive measure against deforestation [21].

Who owns the Amazon rainforest? Why can't we just buy it?

Within the eight countries covering parts of the rainforest, the land is privately owned or held by indigenous people in legally formed territories. Some parts are owned by collectives or are government-controlled public lands and protected national parks. Attempts to buy the entire Amazon are not viable, but sovereign nations of the region could be financially assisted in setting aside some lands for conservation. It is shown that the protected status of indigenous lands is an effec-

I want to thank Author Service Manager Sandra Maljavac at IntechOpen for all her efforts during the preparation and publication of this book. Without her active but

**Heimo Mikkola**

Kuopio, Finland

University of Eastern Finland,

friendly attitude, many important chapters would not have come to be.

How do we stop the global and Amazon deforestation?

The restoration of forested land at a global scale is likely to be the most effective strategy to limit the rise of atmospheric carbon and mitigate climate change [17]. It is promising that some organizations around the world are planting trees at an unprecedented rate in a bid to combat global heating. For example, TreeSisters is planting 2.2 million trees each year across Africa as well as Brazil. The International Tree Foundation (ITF) is supporting local charities to work with local women to establish small nurseries of native trees at the forest fringe. These native trees are then planted directly into deforested areas. Women are the primary caretakers and can drive massive change; planting trees will make their lives better [18]. Although there is no doubt that the restoration of trees is a good strategy for climate change mitigation and wildlife conservation [17], it is important to decide the kinds of trees as well as how and where they are grown. In some contexts it has been shown that increasing tree cover can elevate fire risk if reforestation is achieved with singlespecies tree plantations, which decrease water supplies and can cause crop damage by wildlife. We must view restoration as a system and concentrate on restoring native forest ecosystems [19]. Avoiding forest fires if of utmost importance in the future, as smoke from burning forests in the Amazon has intensified glacier melt in Zongo Glacier in Bolivia fueling concern about a water crisis in South America [20]. Since the 1970s, the Peruvian Andes have lost nearly half their glacier-ice surface area. This impacts hundreds of thousands of people who use glacier water for agriculture and hydropower. In addition, the Patagonian ice fields between Chile and Argentina are melting at a very fast rate [6].

Who owns the Amazon rainforest? Why can't we just buy it?

Within the eight countries covering parts of the rainforest, the land is privately owned or held by indigenous people in legally formed territories. Some parts are owned by collectives or are government-controlled public lands and protected national parks. Attempts to buy the entire Amazon are not viable, but sovereign nations of the region could be financially assisted in setting aside some lands for conservation. It is shown that the protected status of indigenous lands is an effective measure against deforestation [21].

I want to thank Author Service Manager Sandra Maljavac at IntechOpen for all her efforts during the preparation and publication of this book. Without her active but friendly attitude, many important chapters would not have come to be.

> **Heimo Mikkola** University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland

**IV**

What causes fires in the Amazon?

fire as it dries out the forest interior.

Why is the Amazon rainforest in danger?

will further worsen climate change [3].

2018, Brazil lost 7900 km<sup>2</sup>

How much of the Amazon rainforest has been destroyed?

warming [11].

fires to spread from dry areas into the rainforest.

Fires result from either natural lightning or intentional setting by people. At least 75 percent of fires are due to human activities like farming and logging, which allow

Shifting agriculture and cattle ranches are responsible for 80–85 percent of deforestation in the Amazon [10]. Deforestation increases the vulnerability of rainforests to

Climate change is largely contributing to this worsening situation, as it leads to increasing average temperatures and larger and more frequent fires during the dry season. If farmers, ranchers, and land speculators start fires, these fires can easily move to the rainforest. A vicious circle is taking place as fires also reinforce global

According to INPE, 93,485 fires have been recorded in the Brazilian rainforest in 2020 prior to November, which is 25 percent more than in the same period in 2019 [12].

Cattle ranching and soy plantations in massive landholdings of thousands of acres are the dominant drivers of deforestation in the Amazon. New threats emerge from palm oil plantations, illegal mining, and hydropower development [13]. Forest degradation due to unsustainable selective logging practices may not be the largest problem. It is more likely that accelerating deforestation is a real concern because it may affect the global climate. If climate warming continues, a large part of the Amazon could change from rainforest to savanna. This shift would mean huge economic and ecological consequences in the form of rainfall losses. Normally rain falls for 200 days each year, and total rainfall exceeds 80 inches per year [2]. Current rains feed the region that produces two-thirds of South America's GDP and their absence would trigger large carbon emissions from forest die-off. These emissions

Brazil has the power to save the greatest rainforest – or destroy it [14]. It seems that South America's natural wonder may be perilously close to the tipping point beyond which its gradual transformation into something closer to the steppe cannot be stopped or reversed, even if people lay down their axes. An area equivalent in size to Turkey and bigger than that of Texas has been lost to logging, farming, mining, roads, dams, and other forms of "development." Between August 2017 and July

the following reporting period of the INPE, the forest loss was 9205 km<sup>2</sup>

that between August 2019 and July 2020 a total of 11,088 km2

to ban deforestation in the Amazon for five years [11].

How do we stop the global and Amazon deforestation?

August 2018 to July 2019. Due to soaring levels of illegal deforestation, the July 2020 figures from the Brazilian Amazon alone showed a 28 percent increase in the number of fires over the same period in the year before. The INPE recently reported

in Brazil; this being the greatest deforestation rate since 2008 [16]. Now the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) calls for immediate emergency measures to be implemented

of Amazon forest and nearly a billion trees [15]. During

from

of rainforest were lost
