**6. Terra Preta Nova**

Wim Sombroek would probably be a great deal befuddled, if not downright dismayed, by the surprising direction his groundbreaking research has since taken. The *Terra Preta Nova*, as both a concept and a physical substance, has now been seized up by commercial interests and its being offered on the home improvement/horticultural market right alongside the more widely known "enhanced" home gardening soils.

The rapid and profound proliferation of the *Terra Preta* model to large-scale commercial and agricultural uses has been supported by organizations like the International Biochar Initiative (BCI). Founded in July 2006 this body aims to support research on and commercialization of biochar suitable for the manufacture of black earth (www.biochar-international.com).

By promoting the spread of Biochar's use, BCI and its proponents, hope to limit the effects of climate warming through long-term carbon sequestration and increased soil fertility. Their strategy includes political lobbying in addition to their commercial investment. One principal aim is to insert biochar, as sequestered carbon, squarely into global political climate decisions, particularly in the Kyoto protocol and its successor agreements. Further discussion in Bruges [52].

Clearly, the *Terra Preta Nova* community and its adherents have expanded well beyond the ideas Sombroek originally outlined. Carbon in the form of plant charcoal became more and more the central focus, largely because of the relation to the conversations about the climate issue.

However, it is important to take note that the climate-saving *Terra Preta Nova* is in many respects much different from the *Terra Preta de Índio*. First and foremost, it is not simply a "special soil type" that has formed over hundreds of years, but rather a substance, a stuff, that can be deliberately produced through a very specific technical process. Both the incorporation of plant charcoal, but also ceramic components (potsherds), whose porous properties act as a water retainer, were essential to the original *Terra Preta* recipe. By highlighting only certain characteristics of the *Terra Preta* properties, (those strictly relatable to climate change) and reframing the soil as a universally applicable and easily "manufacturable" substance, *Terra Preta Nova* is less an archeologically localized soil and more a commodity.

Through this change of meaning, the redefined *Terra Preta* can be industrially produced in a manner similar to what Bavarian writer Walter von Molo once imagined in his Murnau diaries as "earth factories." These factories "would produce wonderful wheat soil or whatever was desired, that then would be poured out over swamps, deserts, barren or stony areas of all types. Rains of earth would be allowed to occur with great transport aircraft, earth cloudbursts" [53].

### **7. Mythologizing** *Terra Preta*

Another major component and catalyst for the dispersal of *Terra Preta* recognition in the public arena was the concurrent "mythologizing" of *Terra Preta* itself. Some aspects of the history told in this paper have been previously been published in: '*Terra preta de índio*': Commodification and Mythification of the Amazonian dark earths [54]. Key phrases, with very little specific meaning, like "ancient knowledge," "from the rainforest" and the like were peppered throughout the commercialization and discussion process. Thus, a "black revolution from the rainforest" was announced, showing the "way out of the world-wide climate and hunger crisis [40]. Likewise, the website of the "international Biochar Initiative reads: "Sustainable biochar is a powerfully simple tool to fight global warming. This 2000-year-old practice converts agricultural waste into a soil enhancer that can hold carbon, boost food security, and discourage deforestation." (www.biochar.org, accessed August 25, 2018).

German producer PALATERRA emphasizes the aura of mystique and arcane wisdom in their advertising slogan: "The gold of the earth—after the example of the Indians." Another commercial text reads: "More than 1,000 years old—'*Terra Preta'*, the most fertile soil in the world, was produced by the advanced Indian culture of the Amazon from organic material and charcoal. This ancient form of a sustainable recycling economy enables an effective foodstuff cultivation on the infertile rainforest soils (oxisol) for an enormously large population. The production method lapsed into obscurity with the disappearance of the ancient culture years ago. Only around the end of the 20th century archaeologists discovered this 'gold of the earth'" (**Figure 3**) [55].

**137**

**Figure 3.**

certificates market.

*From the "*Terra Preta de Indio*" to the "Terra Preta do Gringo": A History of Knowledge…*

No doubt, one expects such an enigmatically rich dramatization to improve sales of any commercial product. Nevertheless, similarly "enchanted" language and descriptions are also found in scientific papers, usually in the abstract or introduction. One of the most renowned *Terra Preta* researchers in Germany, Bruno Glaser, explains in a scientific article published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, that *Terra Preta* could contribute simultaneously to three of the "Millennium Development Goals. These include mitigating desertification and global warming, as well as maintaining 'biodiversity hotspots" in tropical rainforests [56]. Large-scale use of the "black stuff" would reduce the pressure on primary forests, thereby limiting

Terra Preta Nova*, produced by PALATERRA (BB-mbh): "The Gold from the Earth, created after the model of the Indians." Provides healthy plants, powerful growth, healthy soil, activates the building of humus, lasting* 

North American soil researcher Johannes Lehmann likewise considers the introduction of biocharcoal into soils as a "win-win approach" [57] and his colleague David A. Laird goes a step further, describing it as a "win-win-win scenario" [58]. It is worth noting that biocarbon production itself is big business, especially when its manufacture and incorporation as CO2-sequestration becomes part of the emissions

further degradation of the rainforest while also benefiting the climate.

*effects, active climate protection, and peat-free soil (Photo: J. Soentgen, 2015).*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93354*

*From the "*Terra Preta de Indio*" to the "Terra Preta do Gringo": A History of Knowledge… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93354*

#### **Figure 3.**

*Ecosystem and Biodiversity of Amazonia*

conversations about the climate issue.

**7. Mythologizing** *Terra Preta*

accessed August 25, 2018).

the earth'" (**Figure 3**) [55].

By promoting the spread of Biochar's use, BCI and its proponents, hope to limit the effects of climate warming through long-term carbon sequestration and increased soil fertility. Their strategy includes political lobbying in addition to their commercial investment. One principal aim is to insert biochar, as sequestered carbon, squarely into global political climate decisions, particularly in the Kyoto

Clearly, the *Terra Preta Nova* community and its adherents have expanded well beyond the ideas Sombroek originally outlined. Carbon in the form of plant charcoal became more and more the central focus, largely because of the relation to the

However, it is important to take note that the climate-saving *Terra Preta Nova* is in many respects much different from the *Terra Preta de Índio*. First and foremost, it is not simply a "special soil type" that has formed over hundreds of years, but rather a substance, a stuff, that can be deliberately produced through a very specific technical process. Both the incorporation of plant charcoal, but also ceramic components (potsherds), whose porous properties act as a water retainer, were essential to the original *Terra Preta* recipe. By highlighting only certain characteristics of the *Terra Preta* properties, (those strictly relatable to climate change) and reframing the soil as a universally applicable and easily "manufacturable" substance, *Terra Preta* 

protocol and its successor agreements. Further discussion in Bruges [52].

*Nova* is less an archeologically localized soil and more a commodity.

to occur with great transport aircraft, earth cloudbursts" [53].

Through this change of meaning, the redefined *Terra Preta* can be industrially produced in a manner similar to what Bavarian writer Walter von Molo once imagined in his Murnau diaries as "earth factories." These factories "would produce wonderful wheat soil or whatever was desired, that then would be poured out over swamps, deserts, barren or stony areas of all types. Rains of earth would be allowed

Another major component and catalyst for the dispersal of *Terra Preta* recognition in the public arena was the concurrent "mythologizing" of *Terra Preta* itself. Some aspects of the history told in this paper have been previously been published in: '*Terra preta de índio*': Commodification and Mythification of the Amazonian dark earths [54]. Key phrases, with very little specific meaning, like "ancient knowledge," "from the rainforest" and the like were peppered throughout the commercialization and discussion process. Thus, a "black revolution from the rainforest" was announced, showing the "way out of the world-wide climate and hunger crisis [40]. Likewise, the website of the "international Biochar Initiative reads: "Sustainable biochar is a powerfully simple tool to fight global warming. This 2000-year-old practice converts agricultural waste into a soil enhancer that can hold carbon, boost food security, and discourage deforestation." (www.biochar.org,

German producer PALATERRA emphasizes the aura of mystique and arcane wisdom in their advertising slogan: "The gold of the earth—after the example of the Indians." Another commercial text reads: "More than 1,000 years old—'*Terra Preta'*, the most fertile soil in the world, was produced by the advanced Indian culture of the Amazon from organic material and charcoal. This ancient form of a sustainable recycling economy enables an effective foodstuff cultivation on the infertile rainforest soils (oxisol) for an enormously large population. The production method lapsed into obscurity with the disappearance of the ancient culture years ago. Only around the end of the 20th century archaeologists discovered this 'gold of

**136**

Terra Preta Nova*, produced by PALATERRA (BB-mbh): "The Gold from the Earth, created after the model of the Indians." Provides healthy plants, powerful growth, healthy soil, activates the building of humus, lasting effects, active climate protection, and peat-free soil (Photo: J. Soentgen, 2015).*

No doubt, one expects such an enigmatically rich dramatization to improve sales of any commercial product. Nevertheless, similarly "enchanted" language and descriptions are also found in scientific papers, usually in the abstract or introduction.

One of the most renowned *Terra Preta* researchers in Germany, Bruno Glaser, explains in a scientific article published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, that *Terra Preta* could contribute simultaneously to three of the "Millennium Development Goals. These include mitigating desertification and global warming, as well as maintaining 'biodiversity hotspots" in tropical rainforests [56]. Large-scale use of the "black stuff" would reduce the pressure on primary forests, thereby limiting further degradation of the rainforest while also benefiting the climate.

North American soil researcher Johannes Lehmann likewise considers the introduction of biocharcoal into soils as a "win-win approach" [57] and his colleague David A. Laird goes a step further, describing it as a "win-win-win scenario" [58]. It is worth noting that biocarbon production itself is big business, especially when its manufacture and incorporation as CO2-sequestration becomes part of the emissions certificates market.

Thus the "vision" of the soil pioneer Wim Sombroek has in some sense become a reality. Carbon storage via the production of *Terra Preta* is unique amongst strategies being implemented in the fight against climate. Whether it's pumping CO2 underground or the deliberate dispersal of aerosols into the environment, the *Terra Preta* strategy holds a unique persuasive power by being a modern adaptive measure from ancient pool of knowledge. Not only is a practical strategy being promulgated, but a myth and narrative is constructed that functions alongside the researchdirecting paradigm [45].

For such narratives and meaningful tales, it is characteristic to frame the saving agent as a return or resurrection of something ancient, prehistoric. It harkens back, painting a picture of archaic conditions, people, and gods in order to orient and motivate the act and agency of present-day protagonists [59], (on the term "myth" see also Christine Schmitz [60]). In our case, it is the ancient Amazonian indigenous population who was in possession of the secret to make fertile soil out of infertile ground. However, the ability of the traditional societies was based not only on knowledge, but also on wisdom. Therefore, it is valid to reactivate this now in order to find a way out a potential ecological crisis.

The conundrum presented by suggesting *Terra Preta*, or any other technical means, as a quick-and-easy, one-size-fits-all way solution in the combat against the steady on-set of global warming is that is relegates the role of politics and political will to the sidelines. If the political will to implement these technical solutions is not extant, then they can do very little on their own merit. Nevertheless, at the same time, the mythologizing is functional and can have real practical results. For one, it might help in convincing funding agencies. However, more importantly can spur the research community and inspire younger generations of researchers to enter the academic fray (see Jürgen Frese [61] on the function of myths in groups).

A report on a *Terra Preta* symposium, published in Nature, one of the most prestigious scientific journals, commented on a meeting of soil scientists researching *Terra Preta* describing how: "more than one eye in the room had a distinctly evangelical gleam" [62].

The same journal, Nature, is gladly supportive of spinning the *Terra Preta* mythos. In 2015, for example, an extended article was published [63] in which *Terra Preta* was praised for not only being a remedy for climate change, but also a nutrient and water reservoir and even an absorbing medium for poisons. It worth noting that *Terra Preta Nova* is now being produced in the United States and Europe (a report by the International Biochar Initiative names of 326 firms that are active in production: http://www.biochar-international.org/State\_of\_Industry\_2015, accessed on June 22, 2019).

As an area of scientific research, *Terra Preta* is firmly established. By the end of September 2018, 1.230 scientific papers with titles containing the keywords "*Terra Preta*" and "biochar" had been published (online research in the ISI Web of Science on 24 September 2018). The academic fervor is not groundless, for it is now well documented that the introduction of biochar does indeed have soil-improving traits and does increase agricultural yields. In a limited sense, it contributes to climate protection, especially in Europe, if biocharcoal replaces compost [64]. *Terras Pretas* have also inspired research into novel methods of waste-water treatment [65].

The claim that newly-produced *Terra Preta Nova* can sequester carbon in massive amounts has not yet been sufficiently confirmed by studies. Now, there are only a few concrete field studies proving that the carbon particles really do remain in the soil for a substantial period and that the carbon bonding is not overcompensated through other processes [66]. Health is another concern when discussing the implementation of biochar, due to increased smoke levels (see a new analysis of smoke from burned plant material: Iinuma et al. [67], and products from the pyrolysis

**139**

to chance.

the industry.

*From the "*Terra Preta de Indio*" to the "Terra Preta do Gringo": A History of Knowledge…*

processes can cause adverse health effects. In addition, there are other competing

In addition to these aforementioned concerns there is the need to stress the enormous profit incentives many large companies inevitably take into consideration when championing the integration of *Terra Preta Nova* and, respectively, biochar-

criticized by other NGOs, most notably Biofuelwatch [70, 71].

However, one enormous critically concerning issues is that it is often not possible to verify that biochar production is sustainably produced and does not stem directly from sources of illegal deforestation [52]. Accordingly, the Biochar activists are

From the perspective of a history of knowledge and responsible use thereof, in

The modern *Terra Preta* research would have never begun without indigenous knowledge. There is a clear and direct link between the *Terra Preta* archeological sites and their characteristics that inform the modern search developments. Even the specific plants most adaptable to *Terra Preta* practices is delivered to us from traditional indigenous knowledge. Although observational evidence supports the idea that the modern-day indigenous people of Amazonia produce and understand the *Terra Preta* process, the idea remains debated [41, 72]. In addition, it is highly unlikely that the technically proficient indigenous people of Amazonia would have left their soil quality and conditions, so important for their very survival, entirely

Given this state of affairs, it would justify and correct that the intellectual and financial benefit gained through the research and manufacture of *Terra Preta* goes to not only the researchers and manufacturers, but also to the local inhabitants. Although certainly individual players (in the *Terra Preta* research and commercial diaspora) have exhibited the moral responsibility and principled outlook of Wim Sombroek and have indeed contributed to the benefit and well-being of the present-day inhabitants of Amazonia, it unfortunately remains the exception in

As the locally sourced *Terra Preta de Índio* mutated into the globally distributed and produced *Terra Preta Nova*, the benefits to the local communities seems to have gone missing in the equation. Generally speaking, the present-day inhabitants of Amazonia are excluded from participating in the profit-sharing made possible by the industrialized production of *Terra Preta* and biochar. Once might argue that they do indeed also benefit from the fact that climate change is being combatted. This remains a very abstract and long-term benefit however and means much less to generations living today, regardless of the efficacy the native technology does hold

Participation in both promulgation of and benefits from *Terra Preta* practices by

native groups is essential. The current exploitative and non-collaborative methods used both scientifically and commercially disregard the core principles that were established for the reasonable protection of indigenous knowledge (World Intellectual Property Organization: Wipo Publication 920E). Modern suppliers and producers of *Tarra Preta* products insist on emphasizing the fact that their product was produced with the insight of "traditional indigenous knowledge". In this instance, therefore, the principle of "equitable benefit sharing" [73] (Wipo Publication 920E, p. 23) must be applied, for there are still remaining native peoples

along the Amazon who continue to know and apply this knowledge [74, 75].

for negating the onset of human-caused climate changes.

closing, a consideration of the ethics of knowledge is deemed appropriate.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93354*

**8. Indigenous knowledge and ethics**

uses of biomass to consider [68, 69].

coal in the CO2 markets [66].

*From the "*Terra Preta de Indio*" to the "Terra Preta do Gringo": A History of Knowledge… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93354*

processes can cause adverse health effects. In addition, there are other competing uses of biomass to consider [68, 69].

In addition to these aforementioned concerns there is the need to stress the enormous profit incentives many large companies inevitably take into consideration when championing the integration of *Terra Preta Nova* and, respectively, biocharcoal in the CO2 markets [66].

However, one enormous critically concerning issues is that it is often not possible to verify that biochar production is sustainably produced and does not stem directly from sources of illegal deforestation [52]. Accordingly, the Biochar activists are criticized by other NGOs, most notably Biofuelwatch [70, 71].

From the perspective of a history of knowledge and responsible use thereof, in closing, a consideration of the ethics of knowledge is deemed appropriate.

## **8. Indigenous knowledge and ethics**

*Ecosystem and Biodiversity of Amazonia*

directing paradigm [45].

evangelical gleam" [62].

June 22, 2019).

order to find a way out a potential ecological crisis.

Thus the "vision" of the soil pioneer Wim Sombroek has in some sense become a reality. Carbon storage via the production of *Terra Preta* is unique amongst strategies being implemented in the fight against climate. Whether it's pumping CO2 underground or the deliberate dispersal of aerosols into the environment, the *Terra Preta* strategy holds a unique persuasive power by being a modern adaptive measure from ancient pool of knowledge. Not only is a practical strategy being promulgated, but a myth and narrative is constructed that functions alongside the research-

For such narratives and meaningful tales, it is characteristic to frame the saving agent as a return or resurrection of something ancient, prehistoric. It harkens back, painting a picture of archaic conditions, people, and gods in order to orient and motivate the act and agency of present-day protagonists [59], (on the term "myth" see also Christine Schmitz [60]). In our case, it is the ancient Amazonian indigenous population who was in possession of the secret to make fertile soil out of infertile ground. However, the ability of the traditional societies was based not only on knowledge, but also on wisdom. Therefore, it is valid to reactivate this now in

The conundrum presented by suggesting *Terra Preta*, or any other technical means, as a quick-and-easy, one-size-fits-all way solution in the combat against the steady on-set of global warming is that is relegates the role of politics and political will to the sidelines. If the political will to implement these technical solutions is not extant, then they can do very little on their own merit. Nevertheless, at the same time, the mythologizing is functional and can have real practical results. For one, it might help in convincing funding agencies. However, more importantly can spur the research community and inspire younger generations of researchers to enter the

academic fray (see Jürgen Frese [61] on the function of myths in groups).

A report on a *Terra Preta* symposium, published in Nature, one of the most prestigious scientific journals, commented on a meeting of soil scientists researching *Terra Preta* describing how: "more than one eye in the room had a distinctly

The same journal, Nature, is gladly supportive of spinning the *Terra Preta* mythos. In 2015, for example, an extended article was published [63] in which *Terra Preta* was praised for not only being a remedy for climate change, but also a nutrient and water reservoir and even an absorbing medium for poisons. It worth noting that *Terra Preta Nova* is now being produced in the United States and Europe (a report by the International Biochar Initiative names of 326 firms that are active in production: http://www.biochar-international.org/State\_of\_Industry\_2015, accessed on

As an area of scientific research, *Terra Preta* is firmly established. By the end of September 2018, 1.230 scientific papers with titles containing the keywords "*Terra Preta*" and "biochar" had been published (online research in the ISI Web of Science on 24 September 2018). The academic fervor is not groundless, for it is now well documented that the introduction of biochar does indeed have soil-improving traits and does increase agricultural yields. In a limited sense, it contributes to climate protection, especially in Europe, if biocharcoal replaces compost [64]. *Terras Pretas* have also inspired research into novel methods of waste-water treatment [65]. The claim that newly-produced *Terra Preta Nova* can sequester carbon in massive amounts has not yet been sufficiently confirmed by studies. Now, there are only a few concrete field studies proving that the carbon particles really do remain in the soil for a substantial period and that the carbon bonding is not overcompensated through other processes [66]. Health is another concern when discussing the implementation of biochar, due to increased smoke levels (see a new analysis of smoke from burned plant material: Iinuma et al. [67], and products from the pyrolysis

**138**

The modern *Terra Preta* research would have never begun without indigenous knowledge. There is a clear and direct link between the *Terra Preta* archeological sites and their characteristics that inform the modern search developments. Even the specific plants most adaptable to *Terra Preta* practices is delivered to us from traditional indigenous knowledge. Although observational evidence supports the idea that the modern-day indigenous people of Amazonia produce and understand the *Terra Preta* process, the idea remains debated [41, 72]. In addition, it is highly unlikely that the technically proficient indigenous people of Amazonia would have left their soil quality and conditions, so important for their very survival, entirely to chance.

Given this state of affairs, it would justify and correct that the intellectual and financial benefit gained through the research and manufacture of *Terra Preta* goes to not only the researchers and manufacturers, but also to the local inhabitants. Although certainly individual players (in the *Terra Preta* research and commercial diaspora) have exhibited the moral responsibility and principled outlook of Wim Sombroek and have indeed contributed to the benefit and well-being of the present-day inhabitants of Amazonia, it unfortunately remains the exception in the industry.

As the locally sourced *Terra Preta de Índio* mutated into the globally distributed and produced *Terra Preta Nova*, the benefits to the local communities seems to have gone missing in the equation. Generally speaking, the present-day inhabitants of Amazonia are excluded from participating in the profit-sharing made possible by the industrialized production of *Terra Preta* and biochar. Once might argue that they do indeed also benefit from the fact that climate change is being combatted. This remains a very abstract and long-term benefit however and means much less to generations living today, regardless of the efficacy the native technology does hold for negating the onset of human-caused climate changes.

Participation in both promulgation of and benefits from *Terra Preta* practices by native groups is essential. The current exploitative and non-collaborative methods used both scientifically and commercially disregard the core principles that were established for the reasonable protection of indigenous knowledge (World Intellectual Property Organization: Wipo Publication 920E). Modern suppliers and producers of *Tarra Preta* products insist on emphasizing the fact that their product was produced with the insight of "traditional indigenous knowledge". In this instance, therefore, the principle of "equitable benefit sharing" [73] (Wipo Publication 920E, p. 23) must be applied, for there are still remaining native peoples along the Amazon who continue to know and apply this knowledge [74, 75].
