**2. Characterization of ceramic production in the western Amazon**

In the Amazon, the development of ceramic production techniques was a pioneering effort by indigenous people that was engaged in before agricultural

*Ecosystem and Biodiversity of Amazonia*

examples of Amazonian bioeconomic potential.

of temperature and climate.

activities and ecotourism.

development of biotechnology.

functioning of ecosystems.

scientific and cultural character.

different sources of anthropogenic pressure [2]. However, geological, hydrological, and climatic patterns of the Amazon, allied with its megadiversity favor sustainable use of its natural resources. Provision of inputs and raw materials for production of bioproducts and biofuels, energy generation, and phytotherapeutic products are

Biodiversity is defined as the composition of all species of all forms of life and organizational levels present in ecosystems [3], a characteristic that is typical of the Amazon. The ecologic-economic interface at a large scale generally leads to persistent degradation

The value of ecosystem services is hotly debated due to the difficulty in establishing a monetary value for intangible goods [5, 6]. Studies have indicated that one of the largest gaps or deficits in knowledge of biodiversity is the real magnitude and quantity of microorganisms and species that have been formally described by science [7, 8]. However, the dynamics and multiple facets that characterize the tradeoff between development and sustainability presupposes the necessity to discuss the bioeconomic potential of the Amazon, focused on balancing the magnitude of consumption of natural resources with the capacity to replace them in nature.

Even without knowing the exact quantity of species present in nature, biodiver-

• *Ecosystem functionality*: biodiversity facilitates the functioning of ecosystems, maintaining the planet habitable through carbon exchange, maintenance of surface- and groundwaters, protection and fertilization of soils, and regulation

• *A storehouse of values that are intangible and non-monetary*: biodiversity offers to humanity values that are universally recognized, such as those of esthetic,

• *A storehouse of values that are tangible and monetary*: the beauty and uniqueness of many ecosystems provide value in the form of a diversity of recreational

• *Provision of raw material for production chains and industrial sectors*: biodiversity is the source of many products used by contemporary societies, such as fibers, pharmaceutical products, chemical, and is a source of information for the

The challenge presented by the global market is to satisfy the assumptions of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in productive sectors in the Amazon, since the expansion of certain industrial activities necessary to meet national and international market demand generally results in loss of

Among the diverse initiatives that utilize biodiversity, there is great preoccupation with the sustainability of production chains, and if these adhere to the Sustainable

• *Provision of inputs and bioproducts that are destined for human consumption*: biodiversity is the base for agricultural crops and for the development and

Besides the economic value and biological importance to human survival, biodiversity provides ecosystem services in the form of provision, regulation, and support, and is also important for its contribution to cultures around the world [10–13]. This results in tangible and intangible benefits based on the diversity and

improvement of new varieties for human consumption.

biodiversity, and consequently compromises ecosystem services.

sity has great biological importance for all forms of life [9], such as:

of the natural environment and a loss of ecosystem services and biodiversity [4].

**162**

activities and plant domestication [20]. The production of utensils and other artifacts was not done to sell them in a market, but rather the focus of this production was to make vases, jars, and plates for domestic use. Beginning with the industrial revolution and the introduction of machines and equipment to production processes, the production of ceramics ceased to be merely an artisanal activity and took on an industrial scale. Population growth and the expansion of large urban centers in the region created a new commercial niche, the civil construction market. The demand created by the civil construction production chain altered production models and required the fabrication of new products and consolidated the ceramic industries involved in production of specialized ceramic products.

In the state of Amazonas there are records that show that the first ceramic production activities were artisanal, especially with respect to production of plates, cups, and other utensils for domestic use by the local indigenous population [21]. Up to the decade of the 1970s, the ceramic sector of the state of Amazonas was concentrated in the region of the city of Manaus. Starting in the 1980s these companies migrated from the capital of Manaus to the district of Cacau-Pirêra, city of Iranduba [22–25].

The factors that contributed to the installation and strengthening of the ceramic sector in this region of the Amazon were: a) the existence of extensive deposits of clay raw material; b) proximity to the principal consumer center, connected by the Manoel Urbano – AM-070 highway; and c) large supply of unskilled labor that receives low salaries [18, 26].

#### **2.1 Geographic and geologic aspects of the study area**

The study area is located in the city of Iranduba, metropolitan region of Manaus, consisting of an aggregation of 18 industries situated on the right bank of the Negro River, in front of Manaus, with access and shipping of production done using the Negro River bridge (**Figure 1**).

Geologically, the study area is on a dissected plain, where sedimentary rocks of the Alter do Chão formation predominate. This sedimentation occurred in continental, fluvial, and lacustrine environments, constituted by intercalation of sandstones, mudstones, and conglomerates, which are principally composed of clay [27], which is used in the production of red ceramic products. The sandstones have a fine to medium texture and are red in color; the mudstones, massive or laminar,

#### **Figure 1.**

*Location of the ceramic production center of Iranduba, Amazonas, Brazil. Source: Geocartographic data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) and ArGis (2020).*

**165**

**Figure 2.**

*(D). Source: The authors (2020).*

**center of Iranduba**

*Bioeconomic Potential of Sustainability Indicators in a Ceramic Production Center…*

are poorly consolidated, and have clasts of sand that are irregularly distributed; the

*Landscape heterogeneity of Iranduba: Lateritic profile (A); Sandy deposits (B); fluvial plain (C); floodplain* 

The ceramic industries are inserted in the Holocene Várzeas pedological sector, which is composed of várzeas (floodplains along riverbanks) that developed over Holocene sediments with a variable mineralogical composition. Geoenvironmental studies have indicated that the city of Iranduba is characterized by a heterogeneous landscape, with different soil types that are classified as a lateritic profile, sandy deposits, fluvial and flood plains [29] (**Figure 2**). The clay deposits, which are white to rose colored, together with the yellow Oxisols that overlay the Alter do Chão formation, are used as raw material for the production of red ceramics in the ceramic production industries of Iranduba. The principal products of this red ceramics industry are blocks, bricks, roof tiles, hollow ornamental bricks, slabs, floor tiles, encaustic tiles, tubes, ornamental objects, and domestic utensils, all using common clay as raw material. Recent research conducted in the ceramic production center of Iranduba indicates that the area has a high level of geological diversity and potential for clay extraction at depths of 15 cm, 30 cm and 60 cm, and that this extraction has been occurring without interruption during the last four decades [18]. Even with the obstacles and the technological limitations confronted by this sector the ceramic industry in Amazonas has actively contributed to social and economic development in the region. It has been estimated that at the height of the real estate boom in Brazil between 2008 and 2013 the annual production of ceramics in Amazonas was approximately 35 tons of bricks per month, with the cities of Iranduba and Manacapuru being the principal producers of red ceramics. Just the city of Iranduba

was responsible for about 75% of all brick production in the state, producing

**3. Bioeconomic and sustainability potential of the ceramic production** 

The market for the ceramics industry in Brazil is highly heterogenous and is formed mostly by small companies that are located near the consumer markets in

between 1700 and 2000 direct and indirect jobs [18, 30].

conglomerates are quartz pebbles and silicified sandstone [28].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94002*

*Bioeconomic Potential of Sustainability Indicators in a Ceramic Production Center… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94002*

#### **Figure 2.**

*Ecosystem and Biodiversity of Amazonia*

receives low salaries [18, 26].

Negro River bridge (**Figure 1**).

activities and plant domestication [20]. The production of utensils and other artifacts was not done to sell them in a market, but rather the focus of this production was to make vases, jars, and plates for domestic use. Beginning with the industrial revolution and the introduction of machines and equipment to production processes, the production of ceramics ceased to be merely an artisanal activity and took on an industrial scale. Population growth and the expansion of large urban centers in the region created a new commercial niche, the civil construction market. The demand created by the civil construction production chain altered production models and required the fabrication of new products and consolidated the ceramic industries involved in production of specialized ceramic products. In the state of Amazonas there are records that show that the first ceramic production activities were artisanal, especially with respect to production of plates, cups, and other utensils for domestic use by the local indigenous population [21]. Up to the decade of the 1970s, the ceramic sector of the state of Amazonas was concentrated in the region of the city of Manaus. Starting in the 1980s these companies migrated from

the capital of Manaus to the district of Cacau-Pirêra, city of Iranduba [22–25].

**2.1 Geographic and geologic aspects of the study area**

The factors that contributed to the installation and strengthening of the ceramic sector in this region of the Amazon were: a) the existence of extensive deposits of clay raw material; b) proximity to the principal consumer center, connected by the Manoel Urbano – AM-070 highway; and c) large supply of unskilled labor that

The study area is located in the city of Iranduba, metropolitan region of Manaus, consisting of an aggregation of 18 industries situated on the right bank of the Negro River, in front of Manaus, with access and shipping of production done using the

Geologically, the study area is on a dissected plain, where sedimentary rocks of the Alter do Chão formation predominate. This sedimentation occurred in continental, fluvial, and lacustrine environments, constituted by intercalation of sandstones, mudstones, and conglomerates, which are principally composed of clay [27], which is used in the production of red ceramic products. The sandstones have a fine to medium texture and are red in color; the mudstones, massive or laminar,

*Location of the ceramic production center of Iranduba, Amazonas, Brazil. Source: Geocartographic data from* 

*the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) and ArGis (2020).*

**164**

**Figure 1.**

*Landscape heterogeneity of Iranduba: Lateritic profile (A); Sandy deposits (B); fluvial plain (C); floodplain (D). Source: The authors (2020).*

are poorly consolidated, and have clasts of sand that are irregularly distributed; the conglomerates are quartz pebbles and silicified sandstone [28].

The ceramic industries are inserted in the Holocene Várzeas pedological sector, which is composed of várzeas (floodplains along riverbanks) that developed over Holocene sediments with a variable mineralogical composition. Geoenvironmental studies have indicated that the city of Iranduba is characterized by a heterogeneous landscape, with different soil types that are classified as a lateritic profile, sandy deposits, fluvial and flood plains [29] (**Figure 2**). The clay deposits, which are white to rose colored, together with the yellow Oxisols that overlay the Alter do Chão formation, are used as raw material for the production of red ceramics in the ceramic production industries of Iranduba. The principal products of this red ceramics industry are blocks, bricks, roof tiles, hollow ornamental bricks, slabs, floor tiles, encaustic tiles, tubes, ornamental objects, and domestic utensils, all using common clay as raw material.

Recent research conducted in the ceramic production center of Iranduba indicates that the area has a high level of geological diversity and potential for clay extraction at depths of 15 cm, 30 cm and 60 cm, and that this extraction has been occurring without interruption during the last four decades [18]. Even with the obstacles and the technological limitations confronted by this sector the ceramic industry in Amazonas has actively contributed to social and economic development in the region. It has been estimated that at the height of the real estate boom in Brazil between 2008 and 2013 the annual production of ceramics in Amazonas was approximately 35 tons of bricks per month, with the cities of Iranduba and Manacapuru being the principal producers of red ceramics. Just the city of Iranduba was responsible for about 75% of all brick production in the state, producing between 1700 and 2000 direct and indirect jobs [18, 30].

## **3. Bioeconomic and sustainability potential of the ceramic production center of Iranduba**

The market for the ceramics industry in Brazil is highly heterogenous and is formed mostly by small companies that are located near the consumer markets in their regions. These companies basically use common clay as their principal source of raw material.

In the Iranduba ceramic production center, production is concentrated in red structural ceramics, with 8-hole bricks being the principal product that is made. With competition and an increasing demand for environmentally sustainable products, it has become of fundamental importance that the ceramics sector promotes biotechnological innovations in its production chain through integration of companies, technology, and sustainability (**Figure 3**).

#### **Figure 3.**

*Structure of sustainable production chains. Source: The authors (2020).*

Sustainable production chains seek to improve business models by adding economic and social value to the goods that are produced. For this reason, the bioeconomy is seen as an opportunity to enhance production standards and strengthen relationships between agroextractivists, transformation industries, public authorities and research and development institutions. Companies and governments around the world have been acting to create public policies that strengthen the commitment to use biological resources in a way that favors a more sustainable economic model [31, 32].

An important principle underlying sustainable production chains is that they contemplate changes and or a reorientation of productive systems through necessity or opportunity (entrepreneurship), resulting in lower environmental impact (social sustainability), generation of work and income (economic sustainability), and maintenance of urban and rural characteristics (spatial sustainability) [33]. The combination of these elements requires a set of actions that incorporate scientific knowledge, innovation, and organizational experience (tacit knowledge) to produce, market, and distribute products that are competitive and that are sustainable.

As a result of globalization of markets, a growing number of companies has been striving to create technological tools that are able to track commodities and products, with the objective of supplying a consumer market that is becoming more and more demanding with respect to sustainability of productive processes [34]. The creation of tracking mechanisms that display the routes and management schemes of the entire production chain, from the extraction of raw material (inputs) to the final consumer is highly challenging. However, these initiatives incorporate practices and attitudes that represent a technological and sustainable advance for the industries of the ceramic production center at Iranduba.

#### **3.1 Structural steps that integrate the production chain of the ceramic production center at Iranduba**

The ceramic production chain at Iranduba encompasses three different steps of macroprocesses: extraction of raw material, production of ceramic artifacts, and marketing of the finished product (**Figure 4**).

**167**

**Figure 4.**

*Bioeconomic Potential of Sustainability Indicators in a Ceramic Production Center…*

The first step in the production chain consists of acquisition of raw material, which

in this case is clay. The extraction of clay is one of the most important links in the production chain, and is done using machines and motorized equipment, principally a hydraulic backhoe, excavator shovel, and dump trucks (**Figure 5A** and **B**). It is important to highlight that before beginning the clay excavation process the excavation sites must be properly licensed to have permission for these activities. In general, these industries do not conduct any specific treatment on the extracted clay, and the clay is simply deposited under the roof of a large hangar or outside in large piles with no covering where it will remain for up to three months (**Figure 5C** and **D**). It is thought that this up to three-month period serves to eliminate impurities and microorganisms

*Structure of the ceramic production chain at Iranduba. Source: The authors (2020).*

Clay extraction is permitted by law in article 3° of Law n° 12.651/2012 (Forest Code) and the process of concession/extraction is authorized by different federal agencies, principally the National Mining Agency – ANM, and state and municipal environmental agencies. In the state of Amazonas, licensing of exploitation of mineral substances is done by the Institute of Environmental Protection of the State of Amazonas (IPAAM), by means of three types of licenses that are issued either isolated or in succession, based on the National Environmental Council's (CONAMA) Resolution n° 237/1997 [35], which outlines the rules that organize this activity:

• Preliminary License (LP): issued in the preliminary phase of planning, analy-

• Installation License (LI): issued in the execution phase of the project and the installation of the infrastructure, as well as during the phase of implantation of an Environmental Control Plan (PCA) which outlines methods of recuperation.

• Operation License (LO): issued during the extraction phase of the project and during the phase of execution of the proposed measures in the Plan for

that can compromise the quality of the final product.

sis, and viability of the project in its basic form.

Recuperation of Degraded Areas (PRAD).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94002*

*Bioeconomic Potential of Sustainability Indicators in a Ceramic Production Center… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94002*

**Figure 4.** *Structure of the ceramic production chain at Iranduba. Source: The authors (2020).*

The first step in the production chain consists of acquisition of raw material, which in this case is clay. The extraction of clay is one of the most important links in the production chain, and is done using machines and motorized equipment, principally a hydraulic backhoe, excavator shovel, and dump trucks (**Figure 5A** and **B**). It is important to highlight that before beginning the clay excavation process the excavation sites must be properly licensed to have permission for these activities. In general, these industries do not conduct any specific treatment on the extracted clay, and the clay is simply deposited under the roof of a large hangar or outside in large piles with no covering where it will remain for up to three months (**Figure 5C** and **D**). It is thought that this up to three-month period serves to eliminate impurities and microorganisms that can compromise the quality of the final product.

Clay extraction is permitted by law in article 3° of Law n° 12.651/2012 (Forest Code) and the process of concession/extraction is authorized by different federal agencies, principally the National Mining Agency – ANM, and state and municipal environmental agencies. In the state of Amazonas, licensing of exploitation of mineral substances is done by the Institute of Environmental Protection of the State of Amazonas (IPAAM), by means of three types of licenses that are issued either isolated or in succession, based on the National Environmental Council's (CONAMA) Resolution n° 237/1997 [35], which outlines the rules that organize this activity:


*Ecosystem and Biodiversity of Amazonia*

nies, technology, and sustainability (**Figure 3**).

*Structure of sustainable production chains. Source: The authors (2020).*

of raw material.

**Figure 3.**

their regions. These companies basically use common clay as their principal source

In the Iranduba ceramic production center, production is concentrated in red structural ceramics, with 8-hole bricks being the principal product that is made. With competition and an increasing demand for environmentally sustainable products, it has become of fundamental importance that the ceramics sector promotes biotechnological innovations in its production chain through integration of compa-

Sustainable production chains seek to improve business models by adding economic and social value to the goods that are produced. For this reason, the bioeconomy is seen as an opportunity to enhance production standards and strengthen relationships between agroextractivists, transformation industries, public authorities and research and development institutions. Companies and governments around the world have been acting to create public policies that strengthen the commitment to use biological resources in a way that favors a more sustainable economic model [31, 32]. An important principle underlying sustainable production chains is that they contemplate changes and or a reorientation of productive systems through necessity or opportunity (entrepreneurship), resulting in lower environmental impact (social sustainability), generation of work and income (economic sustainability), and maintenance of urban and rural characteristics (spatial sustainability) [33]. The combination of these elements requires a set of actions that incorporate scientific knowledge, innovation, and organizational experience (tacit knowledge) to produce, market, and distribute products that are competitive and that are sustainable. As a result of globalization of markets, a growing number of companies has been striving to create technological tools that are able to track commodities and products, with the objective of supplying a consumer market that is becoming more and more demanding with respect to sustainability of productive processes [34]. The creation of tracking mechanisms that display the routes and management schemes of the entire production chain, from the extraction of raw material (inputs) to the final consumer is highly challenging. However, these initiatives incorporate practices and attitudes that represent a technological and sustainable advance for the

industries of the ceramic production center at Iranduba.

**production center at Iranduba**

marketing of the finished product (**Figure 4**).

**3.1 Structural steps that integrate the production chain of the ceramic** 

The ceramic production chain at Iranduba encompasses three different steps of macroprocesses: extraction of raw material, production of ceramic artifacts, and

**166**

#### **Figure 5.**

*Processes of extraction (A), transport (B), and storage of clay raw material (C, D) in the study area. Source: The authors (2020).*

From the point of view of sustainability, the extraction of clay in open-air conditions without any subsequent processing represents an activity that promotes environmental degradation with significant impacts on biodiversity, which require mitigating actions and/or the reestablishment original ecosystem conditions.

Although the extraction of raw material for the fabrication of tiles, bricks, and other artifacts made of clay cooked in kilns can be considered an activity that causes environmental degradation of medium to strong intensity, the geographic location of the clay extraction sites used by the ceramic industries of Iranduba have high potential for recuperation using strategic mechanisms from bioeconomic principles. The clay extraction sites licensed by IPAAM are essentially situated in areas prone to flooding or are perpetually under water, which therefore have potential to be used for bioeconomic activities such as pisciculture (**Figure 6A** and **B**).

Most of the clay deposits are located on the land of the ceramic factory or near them (**Figure 6A** and **B**). Clay extraction is done between the months of August to November, which is the dry season where there is a large reduction in rainfall (considered the Amazonian summer). The principal clays that are extracted are kaolinite, with traces of gibbsite, and rarely illite, feldspar, and quartz.

#### **Figure 6.**

*Clay extraction sites used by the ceramic industries of Iranduba, Amazonas, Brazil: RN Ceramic (A), RO Ceramic (B). Source: Geocartographic data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) and ArGis (2020).*

**169**

shown in **Figure 10**.

resources [25].

*Bioeconomic Potential of Sustainability Indicators in a Ceramic Production Center…*

would mitigate the environmental impacts of the degraded area (**Table 1**).

Besides the compensatory environmental recuperation measures, these areas have excellent potential for pisciculture, especially for the species called tambaqui (*Colossoma macropomum*). Raising tambaqui in captivity is perfectly compatible with the culture, infrastructure, and technology available in the local market. In this context, during the rainy season when river levels are high (Amazonian winter), principally between January to June, the areas used for clay extraction could be reused following a new economic and social perspective. This option would foster additional insertion into local markets incorporating practical aspects of the bioeconomy and

It is important to emphasize that the fishing sector represents one of the most important parts of the local economy, since freshwater fish are one of the natural resources that is most abundant and consumed in the Amazon region [36, 37]. Between the years 2018 to 2019, pisciculture production increased by 34% in the region, especially for native species such as tambaqui (*Colossoma macropomum*), matrinxã (*Brycon amazonicus)* and pirarucu (*Arapaima gigas*). This points to a scenario of an increase in productive capacity during the rainy season when water

Studies indicate that fish is the principal protein source for the populations that live along the river margins in Amazonas, with the upper, middle, and lower regions of the Solimões River having one of the highest levels of fish consumption, a reflection of the strong link that Amazonians have with regional fish populations [37, 38]. A person from Amazonas consumes, on average, 60 kgyear−1 of fish, which represents more than ten times the national average per capitayear−1, estimated at 5.8 kg [36, 37]. The high rate of fish consumption in the region, besides providing the basic necessities for survival, there are many natural benefits of fish to the health of consumers since fish is rich in protein, mineral, fatty acids, and omega 3 [37]. Furthermore, the introduction or intensification of pisciculture in areas of clay extraction at the ceramic production center at Iranduba will decrease the pressure on natural stocks of fish and will help to meet the guidelines set out in the

In this context, the regime high and low water fluctuation over the course of a year in Iranduba represents a bioeconomic alternative that has great potential reconciling several needs in the same natural environment by providing raw material for ceramics production as well as production of fish for subsistence and sale of the excess (**Figure 9**). These actions will stimulate an increase in income, access to new technologies and a reduction in impacts caused by the extraction of biodiversity

The second step in the ceramic production chain at Iranduba occurs internally at the site of the company where the ceramic products are made. The principal changes in the physical–chemical characteristics of the raw material to obtain the finished product occur during this step of the production process. The operational activities are conducted using industrial equipment such as a laminator, extruder, conveyer belt, and cutter, which are operated by the factory workers. Socioeconomic studies done involving managers and workers from ceramic companies in Iranduba have indicated that these activities began in a completely artisanal manner and were then modified over the course of years of operation, to the point today where this process

The ceramic companies in Iranduba are responsible for about 50% of all red ceramics produced in the state of Amazonas, generating approximately 1200 direct jobs and 6000 indirect ones, with an estimated production of 4.5 million pieces/month. The portfolio of products consists of bricks (80%), structural ceramic blocks (12%), roofing tiles (5%) and floor tiles and accessories (3%), as

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94002*

levels are high in the region (**Figures 7** and **8**).

sustainable development objectives of the UNO.

can be considered semiautomatic [21].

#### *Bioeconomic Potential of Sustainability Indicators in a Ceramic Production Center… DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94002*

Besides the compensatory environmental recuperation measures, these areas have excellent potential for pisciculture, especially for the species called tambaqui (*Colossoma macropomum*). Raising tambaqui in captivity is perfectly compatible with the culture, infrastructure, and technology available in the local market. In this context, during the rainy season when river levels are high (Amazonian winter), principally between January to June, the areas used for clay extraction could be reused following a new economic and social perspective. This option would foster additional insertion into local markets incorporating practical aspects of the bioeconomy and would mitigate the environmental impacts of the degraded area (**Table 1**).

It is important to emphasize that the fishing sector represents one of the most important parts of the local economy, since freshwater fish are one of the natural resources that is most abundant and consumed in the Amazon region [36, 37]. Between the years 2018 to 2019, pisciculture production increased by 34% in the region, especially for native species such as tambaqui (*Colossoma macropomum*), matrinxã (*Brycon amazonicus)* and pirarucu (*Arapaima gigas*). This points to a scenario of an increase in productive capacity during the rainy season when water levels are high in the region (**Figures 7** and **8**).

Studies indicate that fish is the principal protein source for the populations that live along the river margins in Amazonas, with the upper, middle, and lower regions of the Solimões River having one of the highest levels of fish consumption, a reflection of the strong link that Amazonians have with regional fish populations [37, 38]. A person from Amazonas consumes, on average, 60 kgyear−1 of fish, which represents more than ten times the national average per capitayear−1, estimated at 5.8 kg [36, 37]. The high rate of fish consumption in the region, besides providing the basic necessities for survival, there are many natural benefits of fish to the health of consumers since fish is rich in protein, mineral, fatty acids, and omega 3 [37]. Furthermore, the introduction or intensification of pisciculture in areas of clay extraction at the ceramic production center at Iranduba will decrease the pressure on natural stocks of fish and will help to meet the guidelines set out in the sustainable development objectives of the UNO.

In this context, the regime high and low water fluctuation over the course of a year in Iranduba represents a bioeconomic alternative that has great potential reconciling several needs in the same natural environment by providing raw material for ceramics production as well as production of fish for subsistence and sale of the excess (**Figure 9**). These actions will stimulate an increase in income, access to new technologies and a reduction in impacts caused by the extraction of biodiversity resources [25].

The second step in the ceramic production chain at Iranduba occurs internally at the site of the company where the ceramic products are made. The principal changes in the physical–chemical characteristics of the raw material to obtain the finished product occur during this step of the production process. The operational activities are conducted using industrial equipment such as a laminator, extruder, conveyer belt, and cutter, which are operated by the factory workers. Socioeconomic studies done involving managers and workers from ceramic companies in Iranduba have indicated that these activities began in a completely artisanal manner and were then modified over the course of years of operation, to the point today where this process can be considered semiautomatic [21].

The ceramic companies in Iranduba are responsible for about 50% of all red ceramics produced in the state of Amazonas, generating approximately 1200 direct jobs and 6000 indirect ones, with an estimated production of 4.5 million pieces/month. The portfolio of products consists of bricks (80%), structural ceramic blocks (12%), roofing tiles (5%) and floor tiles and accessories (3%), as shown in **Figure 10**.

*Ecosystem and Biodiversity of Amazonia*

From the point of view of sustainability, the extraction of clay in open-air conditions without any subsequent processing represents an activity that promotes environmental degradation with significant impacts on biodiversity, which require mitigating actions and/or the reestablishment original ecosystem conditions.

*Processes of extraction (A), transport (B), and storage of clay raw material (C, D) in the study area. Source:* 

for bioeconomic activities such as pisciculture (**Figure 6A** and **B**).

kaolinite, with traces of gibbsite, and rarely illite, feldspar, and quartz.

Although the extraction of raw material for the fabrication of tiles, bricks, and other artifacts made of clay cooked in kilns can be considered an activity that causes environmental degradation of medium to strong intensity, the geographic location of the clay extraction sites used by the ceramic industries of Iranduba have high potential for recuperation using strategic mechanisms from bioeconomic principles. The clay extraction sites licensed by IPAAM are essentially situated in areas prone to flooding or are perpetually under water, which therefore have potential to be used

Most of the clay deposits are located on the land of the ceramic factory or near them (**Figure 6A** and **B**). Clay extraction is done between the months of August to November, which is the dry season where there is a large reduction in rainfall (considered the Amazonian summer). The principal clays that are extracted are

*Clay extraction sites used by the ceramic industries of Iranduba, Amazonas, Brazil: RN Ceramic (A), RO Ceramic (B). Source: Geocartographic data from the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE)* 

**168**

**Figure 6.**

**Figure 5.**

*The authors (2020).*

*and ArGis (2020).*

