**5. Thermodynamic relations between gums and water**

The functions derived from the physical and chemical properties of gums are closely related to the interactions of polysaccharides with water. The relationship between the water content of a product and its relative humidity at equilibrium, at constant temperature, can be expressed by characteristic curves called moisture sorption isotherms [77, 78]. In fact, the thermodynamic properties of sorption, such as watersolute affinity and spontaneity of the sorption process provide a better understanding of the water-solute equilibrium that is present in the product [79]. In addition, they facilitate the definition of order and disorder existing in water-solute systems [80].

The differential enthalpy or isosteric heat of sorption defines the amount of heat released or absorbed in the sorption process at constant pressure, and is used as an indicator of the binding force between the water and solutes of the product [81]. When the free water latent heat of vaporization is added, the integral isosteric heat of sorption is obtained, which is the total energy necessary to transfer the water molecules in the vapor state to a solid surface, or vice versa [79, 82]. Also, the differential entropy of a material is proportional to the number of available sorption sites, corresponding to a specific energy level, and indicates the mobility state of the water molecules present in the product [81]. Entropy describes the degree of disorder and randomness in the movement of water molecules, and has been used to explain how water sorption in biological materials occurs [83].

Thermodynamic properties, such as enthalpy and entropy, are necessary to design a process and to qualitatively understand the water state at a certain food surface. Alterations in enthalpy provide the energy variation of the interaction between water molecules and the adsorbent. Entropy, in contrast, may be associated with the binding or repulsion of forces and, consequently, with the spatial arrangement of the water-adsorbent relationship. Thus, entropy characterizes the degree of order or disorder existing in the water-adsorbent system [84]. Gibbs free energy, in turn, is influenced by the thermodynamic properties enthalpy and entropy, and indicates the energetic spontaneity of the water-adsorbent interaction, providing the availability of process energy. If the value of this property is negative, the process is spontaneous, and if it is positive, the process is nonspontaneous. In systems with many constituents, such as food and polysaccharides, Gibbs-free energy depends not only on pressure and temperature, but also on the amount of each component [80].

## **6. Gum applications**

The applications of gums from plant exudates are very diversified, and can be present in various areas of the food industry: confectionery (lollipops, chocolates, jelly beans, pastilles, and others), in which there is a high sugar content and low humidity; to prevent sugar crystallization; in salad dressings (thickeners and emulsion stabilizers) [85]; in frozen products (pasta, popsicles, ice cream) [1]; in dehydrated products, such as juices obtained by spray drying, protecting important compounds such as vitamin C, anthocyanins, and improving solubility, or also as microencapsulants for colors, flavors, and oils [86]; in wine clarification; flavor fixatives and emulsifiers; and in beverages and meat products [87, 88] (**Table 2**).

In adhesion functions, gums are used as fixatives of skin bioelectrodes, dentures, ostomy devices, and transdermal membrane systems, which perform controlled release of drugs through the skin [7, 121, 122]. They are used as adhesive materials in woodbased industry, and obviously, in adhesive industries in general [123]. Gums have applicability in the pharmaceutical area as emulsifiers and reducing agents for suspended particles, laxatives, in the preparation of antiseptics, binders for tablets and pills, and

**243**

*Gums—Characteristics and Applications in the Food Industry*

**Main chemical compounds**

Fructose, sucrose, mannose, glucose, and

and pyrralinose

Glucose:xylose:galactose

Galactomannan, starch Suspension

Galactomannan Textural and

Mannose:Galactose (3:1) Smart food

Galactomannan Matrix formulation

maltose

(3:2:1)

D-galacto-Dmanoglycan, cellulose, galactomannan

*Cassia tora* Arabinose and glucose Suspension

Mannose:Galactose

Xylose, arabinose, rhamnose, and galacturonic acids

Arabinose, galactose, and rhamnose

Galactose, arabinose, rhamnose, glucose, glucuronic acid

Aldobionic acid, L-arabinose, L-galactose, and D-mannose

(3.65:1)

*Cordia obliqua* Arabinose, galactose,

**Application Reference**

[90]

[91, 92]

[93, 94]

[95, 96]

[97, 98]

[99]

[100]

[101]

[102]

[103]

[104]

[105]

[86, 106]

Anti-cancer action [89]

Expectorant, tablet binder, emulsifier

sensory properties of soup powder/ anthocyanin encapsulation

Superdisintegrant in controlled drug delivery system

packaging

for tablets

stabilizer, binder

Dietary fiber, probiotic viability in milk drink

Guar gum nanocomposite films

Antioxidant properties

Emulsifier, suspension stabilizer, binder, thickener

Encapsulation of a lipid shrimp waste extract, anti-inflammatory

effect

stabilizer, emulsifier, binder, mucoadhesive

Tablet formulation, biodegradable support for controlled drug release (colon), bioadhesive

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95078*

**Scientific name**

*Phoenix dactylifera*

*heterophyllus*

*indica*

*Trigonella foenum-graceum*

*Ceretonia Siliqua*

*spinosa*

*Gleditsia triacanthos*

*Mimosa scabrella*

*americanum*

*Albizia stipulata* Boiv*.*

*amygdalus*

*Anacardium occidentale*

**Gums obtained from tree trunks exudates**

**Common name**

**Gums from fruits** Date palm mucilage

"Erva Baleeira" Mucilage

**Gums from seeds**

Fenugreek mucilage

Locust bean gum

*Gleditsia triacanthos* gum

*Cassia tora* Mucilage

Flamboyant gum

*Albizia stipulata* Boiv. gum

Cashew gum and cashew nut

gum

Jackfruit *Artocarpus* 

Tamarind gum *Tamarindus* 

Tara gum *Caesalpinia* 

Guar gum *Ocimum* 

Almond gum *Prunus* 


*Innovation in the Food Sector Through the Valorization of Food and Agro-Food By-Products*

The functions derived from the physical and chemical properties of gums are closely related to the interactions of polysaccharides with water. The relationship between the water content of a product and its relative humidity at equilibrium, at constant temperature, can be expressed by characteristic curves called moisture sorption isotherms [77, 78]. In fact, the thermodynamic properties of sorption, such as watersolute affinity and spontaneity of the sorption process provide a better understanding of the water-solute equilibrium that is present in the product [79]. In addition, they facilitate the definition of order and disorder existing in water-solute systems [80]. The differential enthalpy or isosteric heat of sorption defines the amount of heat released or absorbed in the sorption process at constant pressure, and is used as an indicator of the binding force between the water and solutes of the product [81]. When the free water latent heat of vaporization is added, the integral isosteric heat of sorption is obtained, which is the total energy necessary to transfer the water molecules in the vapor state to a solid surface, or vice versa [79, 82]. Also, the differential entropy of a material is proportional to the number of available sorption sites, corresponding to a specific energy level, and indicates the mobility state of the water molecules present in the product [81]. Entropy describes the degree of disorder and randomness in the movement of water molecules, and has been used

**5. Thermodynamic relations between gums and water**

to explain how water sorption in biological materials occurs [83].

Thermodynamic properties, such as enthalpy and entropy, are necessary to design a process and to qualitatively understand the water state at a certain food surface. Alterations in enthalpy provide the energy variation of the interaction between water molecules and the adsorbent. Entropy, in contrast, may be associated with the binding or repulsion of forces and, consequently, with the spatial arrangement of the water-adsorbent relationship. Thus, entropy characterizes the degree of order or disorder existing in the water-adsorbent system [84]. Gibbs free energy, in turn, is influenced by the thermodynamic properties enthalpy and entropy, and indicates the energetic spontaneity of the water-adsorbent interaction, providing the availability of process energy. If the value of this property is negative, the process is spontaneous, and if it is positive, the process is nonspontaneous. In systems with many constituents, such as food and polysaccharides, Gibbs-free energy depends not only on pressure and temperature, but also on the amount of each component [80].

The applications of gums from plant exudates are very diversified, and can be present in various areas of the food industry: confectionery (lollipops, chocolates, jelly beans, pastilles, and others), in which there is a high sugar content and low humidity; to prevent sugar crystallization; in salad dressings (thickeners and emulsion stabilizers) [85]; in frozen products (pasta, popsicles, ice cream) [1]; in dehydrated products, such as juices obtained by spray drying, protecting important compounds such as vitamin C, anthocyanins, and improving solubility, or also as microencapsulants for colors, flavors, and oils [86]; in wine clarification; flavor fixatives and emulsifiers; and in beverages and meat products [87, 88] (**Table 2**). In adhesion functions, gums are used as fixatives of skin bioelectrodes, dentures, ostomy devices, and transdermal membrane systems, which perform controlled release of drugs through the skin [7, 121, 122]. They are used as adhesive materials in woodbased industry, and obviously, in adhesive industries in general [123]. Gums have applicability in the pharmaceutical area as emulsifiers and reducing agents for suspended particles, laxatives, in the preparation of antiseptics, binders for tablets and pills, and

**242**

**6. Gum applications**


**245**

*Gums—Characteristics and Applications in the Food Industry*

in the cosmetics area (perfume fixers, skin cleansers, and repellents) [124–127]. Also, in the medical field, gums are used to control osmotic pressure, in addition to having

The most recent studies have shown that the versatility of gum use has increased. The beverage industry, for instance, is always seeking products with greater stability. Some polysaccharides are excellent stabilizers, such as tara gum, which is often used to stabilize casein aggregation in dairy drinks, improving phase separation. This occurs because tara gum makes it difficult to approach casein molecules, providing greater stability and improving the sensory acceptance of the product [125]. Carrageenan gum, xanthan gum, guar gum, sodium alginate, carboxymethyl cellulose, gum arabic, and pectin were tested to prevent the formation of turbidity, caused by protein-polyphenol complexation, in packaged beverages. Among them, pectin, xanthan gum, and guar gum showed the best results [126]. These polysaccharides, when present in low concentrations: 0.5, 0.05, and 0.01 mg/mL, compete with proteins to bind polyphenols, which decrease protein-polyphenol aggregation; or they can form a ternary complex (protein-tannin-polysaccharide) to increase the solubility of protein- polyphenol systems. This mechanism promotes the reduction

The use of gums and polysaccharides in film production is also an area of great concentration of studies. Active, functional, and biodegradable packagings are

Tragacanth gum, for instance, showed excellent results in the production of nanocomposite biofilms, and can be applied in the prevention of lipid oxidation in high-fat foods, with antimicrobial action and excellent responses to biodegradability tests [128, 129]. In addition, chemically modifying the gums to improve their hydration control, gel formation, and swelling can also be an interesting way to use these polysaccharides to produce biodegradable films, which have a good response

Gums can offer great innovation opportunities for the food sector. Its use is reported in wastewater treatment and in the production of nanoemulsions, and micro and nano encapsulation of dyes, essential oils, and probiotics [131–136]. Therefore, it is important to encourage the search for new sources of gums and polysaccharides from biodiversity, as their applicability and benefits can and, obvi-

Gums have incredible versatility and are a rich source of innovation in food formulations and elaborations in the industry. They can be used both in isolation and in mixtures and can be modulated to deliver not only taste and nutrition, but also a new consumption experience, whether due to texture or applied technology. It is important that new sources of these carbohydrates are increasingly known, as

The authors acknowledge *Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico* (CNPq, Brazil) for the financial support and *Coordenação de Pessoal de Nível Superior* (CAPES, Brazil), University of Pará State (UEPA) and Federal

activity against *Leishmania amazonensis* and antifungal properties [128].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95078*

of unwanted turbidity in such products [127].

examples which may have antibacterial activity.

in prolonging food quality [130].

there is still much to explore in this area.

ously, should be explored.

**Acknowledgements**

University of Pará (UFPA).

**7. Conclusion**

#### **Table 2.**

*Applications of gums from various origins.*

#### *Gums—Characteristics and Applications in the Food Industry DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95078*

*Innovation in the Food Sector Through the Valorization of Food and Agro-Food By-Products*

**Main chemical compounds**

Cherry gum *Prunus avium* Arabinogalactan Coating film [107]

*Raphia hookeri* Mannose and galactose Aluminum

D-galacturonic acid, D-galactose, L-fucose (6-deoxy-L-galactose), D-xylose, L-arabinose, and L-rhamnose

Polysaccharides and gelatinous materials

Glucose, rhamnose, and

glucuronate

glucuronate, and galactose

glucuronate

D-Glucose and D-mannose

D-glucose, D-mannose, and glucuronic acid

L-rhamnose, D-galactose, Dgalactouronic acid, and D- glucuronic

acid

Rhamnogalacturonan Production of

Glucose Food additive,

Galactose and arabinose Gelling agent,

**Application Reference**

[108]

[109]

[110]

[111]

[112, 113]

[114]

[115, 116]

[117]

[114]

[118, 119]

[120]

anti-corrosion agent in acid medium

Catalyst in the production of nanoparticles

biocompatible and antimicrobial scaffold for bandages

Binding agent, gelling agent (drugs)

Controlled drug release

thickener, gelling

Viscosity enhancer [114]

agent

Emulsion stabilizer, ophthalmic hydrogel

Carotenoid encapsulation for use in yogurts

Viscosity enhancer/ controlled drug release

Gelling agent, controlled drug release

mucoadhesives

**Common name**

*Raphia hookeri* gum

Tragacanth gum

Gum kondagogu

*Cocculus hirsutus* mucilage

Hibiscus mucilage

**Gums obtained from leaves**

**Scientific name**

*Astragalus gummifer*

*Cochlospermum gossypium*

*Cocculus hirsutus*

*Hibiscus rosa-sinensis*

**Gums obtained from microorganisms** Curdlan gum *Agrobacterium* spp.

Gellan gum *Sphingomonas*

Xanthan gum *Xanthomonas* 

**Gums obtained from tubers**

Taro *Colocasia*

*Applications of gums from various origins.*

Konjac glucomannan spp.

*spp.*

Cholic acid *Escherichia coli* Fucose, glucose,

K30 antigen *Escherichia coli* Mannose, galactose, and

*Amorphophallus konjac*

*Esculenta*

**244**

**Table 2.**

in the cosmetics area (perfume fixers, skin cleansers, and repellents) [124–127]. Also, in the medical field, gums are used to control osmotic pressure, in addition to having activity against *Leishmania amazonensis* and antifungal properties [128].

The most recent studies have shown that the versatility of gum use has increased. The beverage industry, for instance, is always seeking products with greater stability. Some polysaccharides are excellent stabilizers, such as tara gum, which is often used to stabilize casein aggregation in dairy drinks, improving phase separation. This occurs because tara gum makes it difficult to approach casein molecules, providing greater stability and improving the sensory acceptance of the product [125].

Carrageenan gum, xanthan gum, guar gum, sodium alginate, carboxymethyl cellulose, gum arabic, and pectin were tested to prevent the formation of turbidity, caused by protein-polyphenol complexation, in packaged beverages. Among them, pectin, xanthan gum, and guar gum showed the best results [126]. These polysaccharides, when present in low concentrations: 0.5, 0.05, and 0.01 mg/mL, compete with proteins to bind polyphenols, which decrease protein-polyphenol aggregation; or they can form a ternary complex (protein-tannin-polysaccharide) to increase the solubility of protein- polyphenol systems. This mechanism promotes the reduction of unwanted turbidity in such products [127].

The use of gums and polysaccharides in film production is also an area of great concentration of studies. Active, functional, and biodegradable packagings are examples which may have antibacterial activity.

Tragacanth gum, for instance, showed excellent results in the production of nanocomposite biofilms, and can be applied in the prevention of lipid oxidation in high-fat foods, with antimicrobial action and excellent responses to biodegradability tests [128, 129]. In addition, chemically modifying the gums to improve their hydration control, gel formation, and swelling can also be an interesting way to use these polysaccharides to produce biodegradable films, which have a good response in prolonging food quality [130].

Gums can offer great innovation opportunities for the food sector. Its use is reported in wastewater treatment and in the production of nanoemulsions, and micro and nano encapsulation of dyes, essential oils, and probiotics [131–136].

Therefore, it is important to encourage the search for new sources of gums and polysaccharides from biodiversity, as their applicability and benefits can and, obviously, should be explored.
