*2.9.3 Binders in paper making and paper coating*

Starch possesses a binding property and can be used as a binder in papermaking and paper coating. Cooked starch is widely used as paper-making additive and the retention of the cooked starch on the paper matrix is based on starch absorption [108]. However, the amount of starch absorbed is limited by the cellulose substrates absorption saturation. Another problem which might cause operational problems is the high viscosity of the starch paste after cooking. Bloembergen *et al*. [120] revealed that the modified starch possessed better paper binding capacity than cooked starches.

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crops [24].

*Utilization of Starch in Food and Allied Industries in Africa: Challenges and Prospects*

**3. Challenges facing common starch sources and way outs**

suggestions described below are given utmost attention:

and make them readily available for consumption.

products to the larger industries [24].

mycotoxin contamination in starch [108].

Starch is the basis of our food and industrial economy, but the food situation in most developing tropical countries is alarmingly worsening owing to increasing population, fragmented farms with rudimentary technologies, poor pre-harvest and postharvest farm practices and shortage of fertile land [11, 24, 108]. The shortage of food supply has resulted into a high incidence of hunger and malnutrition [12, 13]. It also affected the demand for starch as food, pharmaceutical and industrial uses coupled with the need to attain self-sufficiency in starch production.

However, self-sufficiency in starch production could be attained if the following

i.Some lesser known and unconventional crops could be good sources of nutrients and starch, and even have the potential of broadening the present narrow food base of the human species (Viano *et al*., 1995). *Dioscorea villosa* L (common name wild yam or atlantic yam) is one of the underutilized starch sources, and it is less explored due the presence of anti nutritional factors. Processing techniques can reduce the anti-nutritional factors in food

ii.Efficient and effective development of the various starch based crop value chains such as cassava in order to increase their productivity [24].

production, processing and delivery of high quality and quantity of cassava

iv.Promotion of effective pest/pathogens integrated management programs and reduction of the occurrence of mycotoxin in starch based crops, to prevent emerging and endemic pests and diseases as well as reduction of

v.Access to high yielding, climate-resilient and affordable quality seeds, advances in breeding technology using genomic approaches that is costeffective and field-relevant high throughput phenotyping approaches will accelerate and contribute significantly to mass production starch-based

iii.Encouraging small and medium scale investments in order to enhance

Starch bioconversion into ethanol is a two-step process. Saccharification is the first step, which involves conversion of starch into sugar using an amylolytic microorganism or enzymes such as glucoamylase and α-amylase. Fermentation is the second step, which involves conversion of sugar into ethanol using *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* [121]. An alternative to the conventional multistage process of starch fermentation which offers poor economic feasibility is the use of amylolytic yeasts for the direct fermentation of starch. Despite the fact that there are over 150 amylolytic yeast species, they possess limited industrial use because of their low ethanol tolerance [121]. Therefore, most research effort has been geared towards the development of genetically engineered amylolytic strains of *S. cerevisiae*, and in these strains, heterologous genes encoding α-amylase and glucoamylase from various organisms have been produced including their products and their products [121].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95020*

*2.9.4 Starch as energy source*

*Utilization of Starch in Food and Allied Industries in Africa: Challenges and Prospects DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95020*

#### *2.9.4 Starch as energy source*

*Innovation in the Food Sector Through the Valorization of Food and Agro-Food By-Products*

sodium caseinate and gum Arabic [102].

**2.9 Utilization of starch in allied industries**

forced with 2.5% starch nanoparticles.

low cost, and suitable physicochemical properties [31].

*2.9.3 Binders in paper making and paper coating*

*2.9.2 Drug carrier and tablet binder*

*2.8.6 Emulsion stabilizer*

*2.9.1 Packaging component*

condition and the process involves application heat and shear thinning. Therefore, starch which has ability to tolerate acidity, heat, and shear is suitable for these products. Also, lipophilic starch which has potential to stabilize emulsions, other modified starches such as cross-linked starch and stabilized starch are the most commonly used for these products [117]. Lipophilic starch is produced by esterification with n-octenyl succinic anhydrate, which led to a starch structure comprising both hydrophilic and lipophilic properties. This starch can be used for mayonnaise and salad dressing, lipophilic starch might be used to replace animal-derived

A scientific study suggested that starch could be used as a stabilizer in oil-inwater emulsions [117]. The study further revealed that emulsion prepared with equivalent volume ratio of water and paraffin could be stabilized by adding an aliquot of starch dispersion [117]. Kim *et al*. [117] established that the introduction of starch nano particles of more than 0.02% wt kept the emulsion longer than 2 month of storage without coalescence of oil droplets. Starch might be used in various emul-

sions not only for foods but also for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals [117].

Some non food uses of starch in allied industries are described below:

Nanoparticle from starch can be used as a material in barrier films for food packaging. The primary focus of the barrier properties of the packaging films is on water vapor transmission and oxygen permeability [117]. However, a decrease in water vapors permeability was observed when the maize starch was used. Kristo and Biliaderis [118] revealed addition of 30–40% waxy maize starch significantly decreased the water vapor permeability in the component. Similarly, García *et al.* [119] observed a 40% decrease in the permeability of cassava starch film, rein-

Starch has been described as a nontoxic, biodegradable, and biocompatible polymer [117]. Its nanoparticles possess the ability to deliver an ample range of molecules to any location in human body for sustained periods of time. Starch has been useful in tablet formulation and binding due to its relative inertness, abundance,

Starch possesses a binding property and can be used as a binder in papermaking and paper coating. Cooked starch is widely used as paper-making additive and the retention of the cooked starch on the paper matrix is based on starch absorption [108]. However, the amount of starch absorbed is limited by the cellulose substrates absorption saturation. Another problem which might cause operational problems is the high viscosity of the starch paste after cooking. Bloembergen *et al*. [120] revealed that the modified starch possessed better paper binding capacity than

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cooked starches.

Starch bioconversion into ethanol is a two-step process. Saccharification is the first step, which involves conversion of starch into sugar using an amylolytic microorganism or enzymes such as glucoamylase and α-amylase. Fermentation is the second step, which involves conversion of sugar into ethanol using *Saccharomyces cerevisiae* [121]. An alternative to the conventional multistage process of starch fermentation which offers poor economic feasibility is the use of amylolytic yeasts for the direct fermentation of starch. Despite the fact that there are over 150 amylolytic yeast species, they possess limited industrial use because of their low ethanol tolerance [121]. Therefore, most research effort has been geared towards the development of genetically engineered amylolytic strains of *S. cerevisiae*, and in these strains, heterologous genes encoding α-amylase and glucoamylase from various organisms have been produced including their products and their products [121].
