**3. Bioactive composition of Brazilian nuts**

Tocopherols and tocotrienols are a group of eight compounds widely spread in nature. They are monophenols chemically characterized by a chromanol ring, in which a hydroxyl group is attached. The configuration of the side hydrocarbon chain determines whether the compound is either tocopherol or tocotrienol (saturated side chain or three double bonds, respectively). Both tocopherols and tocotrienols have four homologs each (α, β, γ, and δ), which are defined by the methylation pattern on the chromanol ring. These compounds can act as antioxidants by the donation of a hydrogen atom from the hydroxyl group to free radicals, stabilizing them and reducing oxidative stress. α-Tocopherol presents the highest *in vivo* antioxidant capacity and 100% of vitamin E activity. The activity of α-tocopherol is related to the transfer protein (α-TTP) in the liver, involved in the absorption of tocopherols [29].

Nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils are good sources for tocopherols, and α-tocopherol is the most abundant one in photosynthetic tissues. On the other hand, seeds accumulate about 10–20 times more γ-tocopherol. Tocopherols can be found in considerable amounts in Brazil nuts, where they are concentrated in the oil fraction due to their lipophilic character, as reported by Costa et al. [20]. The authors reported a total tocopherol content of 152.80 μg/g for Brazil nuts, composed of α-tocopherol (72.55 μg/g), γ-tocopherol (74.35 μg/g), and δ-tocopherol (5.90 μg/g). This profile may change according to the region where the nuts are grown. Funasaki et al. [30] reported the tocopherol composition of Brazil nuts from seven different Amazon rainforest areas. α-Tocopherol content ranged from 37.92 μg/g (Manicoré 2-AM) to 74.48 μg/g (Manicoré 1-AM) and γ-tocopherol levels varied between 106.88 μg/g (Manicoré 2-AM) and 171.80 μg/g (Xapuri – AC). The differences in the tocopherol content can be related to climate variations and post-harvest handling.

As natural antioxidants, tocopherols play a role in the protection of nuts against oxidation. Zajdenwerg et al. [31] showed a correlation between the decrease in tocopherol concentration and the appearance of secondary oxidation products in Brazil nuts after a period of storage of 16 days at 80°C γ-tocopherol was depleted by 50%, and α-tocopherol was completely consumed, while aldehydes started to build up from hydroperoxide breakdown. The authors suggested that α-tocopherol acted as a primary antioxidant, which would explain why this homolog was depleted first. α-Tocopherol is less polar than γ-tocopherol due to the presence of three methyl groups on its chromanol ring, which gives it higher antioxidant efficiency in nonpolar systems [31].

Cashew nuts, on the other hand, present a lower concentration of tocopherols when compared with Brazil nuts. Ryan et al. [32] reported α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol contents of 3.6 mg/g and 57.2 mg/g, respectively, for cashew oil. Meanwhile, Brazil nut oil was composed of 82.9 mg/g of α-tocopherol and 116.2 mg/g of γ-tocopherol. However, according to the same study, cashew oil is richer in other bioactive compounds than Brazil nut oil, namely some types of phytosterols, such as β-sitosterol (1768 mg/g against 1325 mg/g from Brazil nut) and campesterol (105.3 mg/g against 26.9 mg/g for Brazil nut). Nevertheless, stigmasterol is more concentrated in Brazil nuts oil (577.5 mg/g) than cashew oil (116.7 mg/g). The consumption of phytosterols has been associated with a decrease in LDL-cholesterol levels. The reason behind this bioactivity relies on the higher hydrophobicity of phytosterols compared with cholesterol, which would give them

**145**

antioxidants.

*Valorization of Native Nuts from Brazil and Their Coproducts*

an advantage in being transported by micelles and later exerted once humans do not absorb them. This would prevent cholesterol from accumulating in the enterocytes and further reaching the bloodstream [32]. Pecan nut is rich in γ-tocopherol, with

The bioactive composition of cashew, Brazil and pecan nuts goes beyond the presence of tocopherols and phytosterols in their oil fraction. Both are also rich sources of polyphenols, an extensive class of secondary plant metabolites with antioxidant properties. Polyphenols primarily act by donating a hydrogen atom to free radicals in order to interrupt oxidation reaction chains. As a minor antioxidant mechanism, phenolics also can chelate transition metals, preventing these prooxidant agents from initiating the reaction chain that originates from the oxidative process. Based on structural differences, this large group can be further divided into subgroups, with the main ones being flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids, hydrolysable tannins, and proanthocyanidins. In nuts, phenolics can be present as free soluble compounds, esterified to fatty acids (soluble esters), or insoluble-bound to macromolecules (e.g., cellulose, structural protein, pectin) [1]. John et al. [1] reported the phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of Brazil nut. Soluble phenolics (free plus esterified) were found to be the predominant state present in the whole nut (519.11 mg/100 g), as well as the kernel (406.83 mg/100 g) and the brown skin (1236.07 mg/100 g). However, a significant amount (352.48 mg/100 g) of insoluble-bound phenolics were detected in the brown skin of Brazil nuts. Gallocatechin, protocatechuic acid, catechin, and vanillic acid were the main phenolics identified in the bound fraction. Insoluble-bound polyphenols are related to beneficial effects on gut health, once they are associated with a decrease in the colonic pH, preventing the growth of harmful microorganisms [33]. The study of John et al. [1] also demonstrated that the brown skin extract of Brazil nuts showed the highest *in vitro* antioxidant activity, measured by DPPH, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, reducing power and ORAC assay. The brown skin showed the highest amount of soluble and insoluble-bound polyphenols and this coproduct of Brazil nuts can be considered an economical source of natural

Yang et al. [34] compared the phenolic content and antiproliferative activities of Brazil nuts and cashew. Cashew showed a higher concentration of both soluble (86.7 mg/100 g) and insoluble-bound (229.7 mg/100 g) phenolics when compared to Brazil nuts (46.2 mg/100 g of soluble and 123.1 mg/100 g of insoluble-bound). Brazil nuts did not display antiproliferative activity against HepG2 (human liver cancer cells) at the doses tested in the study (from 1 to 200 mg/mL). On the other hand, cashew displayed the effect at high doses (100-200 mg/mL). In addition, neither of them showed inhibition for human colon cancer cells (Caco-2) proliferation. The roasting, which is a common process in nut preparation, has shown evidence to impact the phenolic composition of cashew and Brazil nuts in different ways. Özcan et al. [35] reported that the total phenolic content of Brazil nuts significantly decreased from 68.97 mg/100 (raw nut) to 66.47 mg/100 g when ovenroasted (130°C for 20 min). The microwave-roasted (720 W for 5 min) showed the highest impact on the phenolic compounds, decreasing from 68.97 mg/100 to 25.88 mg/100 g. The DPPH radical scavenging capacity of the phenolic extracts also declined from 81.77% in the raw nut to 40.66% in the oven-roasted nut and 34.60% in the microwave-roasted nut. On the other hand, Chandrasekara and Shahidi [21] demonstrated that oven-roasting cashew at 130°C for 33 min increased the total phenolic content (both soluble and insoluble-bound) of the whole nut, as well as the kernel and the testa. At the same time, the levels of proanthocyanidins decreased, except for soluble phenolic extract from the kernel. In particular, the concentrations of the flavonoids (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, and epigallocatechin were

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95056*

23.8-38.1 mg/100 g [4].

*Innovation in the Food Sector Through the Valorization of Food and Agro-Food By-Products*

recommended due to the high levels of selenium.

**3. Bioactive composition of Brazilian nuts**

absorption of tocopherols [29].

On the other hand, an excessive consumption of Brazil and sapucaia nuts is not

Tocopherols and tocotrienols are a group of eight compounds widely spread in nature. They are monophenols chemically characterized by a chromanol ring, in which a hydroxyl group is attached. The configuration of the side hydrocarbon chain determines whether the compound is either tocopherol or tocotrienol (saturated side chain or three double bonds, respectively). Both tocopherols and tocotrienols have four homologs each (α, β, γ, and δ), which are defined by the methylation pattern on the chromanol ring. These compounds can act as antioxidants by the donation of a hydrogen atom from the hydroxyl group to free radicals, stabilizing them and reducing oxidative stress. α-Tocopherol presents the highest *in vivo* antioxidant capacity and 100% of vitamin E activity. The activity of α-tocopherol is related to the transfer protein (α-TTP) in the liver, involved in the

Nuts, seeds, and vegetable oils are good sources for tocopherols, and

oxidation. Zajdenwerg et al. [31] showed a correlation between the decrease in tocopherol concentration and the appearance of secondary oxidation products in Brazil nuts after a period of storage of 16 days at 80°C γ-tocopherol was depleted by 50%, and α-tocopherol was completely consumed, while aldehydes started to build up from hydroperoxide breakdown. The authors suggested that α-tocopherol acted as a primary antioxidant, which would explain why this homolog was depleted first. α-Tocopherol is less polar than γ-tocopherol due to the presence of three methyl groups on its chromanol ring, which gives it higher antioxidant efficiency in non-

Cashew nuts, on the other hand, present a lower concentration of tocopherols when compared with Brazil nuts. Ryan et al. [32] reported α-tocopherol and γ-tocopherol contents of 3.6 mg/g and 57.2 mg/g, respectively, for cashew oil. Meanwhile, Brazil nut oil was composed of 82.9 mg/g of α-tocopherol and 116.2 mg/g of γ-tocopherol. However, according to the same study, cashew oil is richer in other bioactive compounds than Brazil nut oil, namely some types of phytosterols, such as β-sitosterol (1768 mg/g against 1325 mg/g from Brazil nut) and campesterol (105.3 mg/g against 26.9 mg/g for Brazil nut). Nevertheless, stigmasterol is more concentrated in Brazil nuts oil (577.5 mg/g) than cashew oil (116.7 mg/g). The consumption of phytosterols has been associated with a decrease in LDL-cholesterol levels. The reason behind this bioactivity relies on the higher hydrophobicity of phytosterols compared with cholesterol, which would give them

α-tocopherol is the most abundant one in photosynthetic tissues. On the other hand, seeds accumulate about 10–20 times more γ-tocopherol. Tocopherols can be found in considerable amounts in Brazil nuts, where they are concentrated in the oil fraction due to their lipophilic character, as reported by Costa et al. [20]. The authors reported a total tocopherol content of 152.80 μg/g for Brazil nuts, composed of α-tocopherol (72.55 μg/g), γ-tocopherol (74.35 μg/g), and δ-tocopherol (5.90 μg/g). This profile may change according to the region where the nuts are grown. Funasaki et al. [30] reported the tocopherol composition of Brazil nuts from seven different Amazon rainforest areas. α-Tocopherol content ranged from 37.92 μg/g (Manicoré 2-AM) to 74.48 μg/g (Manicoré 1-AM) and γ-tocopherol levels varied between 106.88 μg/g (Manicoré 2-AM) and 171.80 μg/g (Xapuri – AC). The differences in the tocopherol content can be related to climate variations and post-harvest handling. As natural antioxidants, tocopherols play a role in the protection of nuts against

**144**

polar systems [31].

an advantage in being transported by micelles and later exerted once humans do not absorb them. This would prevent cholesterol from accumulating in the enterocytes and further reaching the bloodstream [32]. Pecan nut is rich in γ-tocopherol, with 23.8-38.1 mg/100 g [4].

The bioactive composition of cashew, Brazil and pecan nuts goes beyond the presence of tocopherols and phytosterols in their oil fraction. Both are also rich sources of polyphenols, an extensive class of secondary plant metabolites with antioxidant properties. Polyphenols primarily act by donating a hydrogen atom to free radicals in order to interrupt oxidation reaction chains. As a minor antioxidant mechanism, phenolics also can chelate transition metals, preventing these prooxidant agents from initiating the reaction chain that originates from the oxidative process. Based on structural differences, this large group can be further divided into subgroups, with the main ones being flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids, hydrolysable tannins, and proanthocyanidins. In nuts, phenolics can be present as free soluble compounds, esterified to fatty acids (soluble esters), or insoluble-bound to macromolecules (e.g., cellulose, structural protein, pectin) [1].

John et al. [1] reported the phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of Brazil nut. Soluble phenolics (free plus esterified) were found to be the predominant state present in the whole nut (519.11 mg/100 g), as well as the kernel (406.83 mg/100 g) and the brown skin (1236.07 mg/100 g). However, a significant amount (352.48 mg/100 g) of insoluble-bound phenolics were detected in the brown skin of Brazil nuts. Gallocatechin, protocatechuic acid, catechin, and vanillic acid were the main phenolics identified in the bound fraction. Insoluble-bound polyphenols are related to beneficial effects on gut health, once they are associated with a decrease in the colonic pH, preventing the growth of harmful microorganisms [33]. The study of John et al. [1] also demonstrated that the brown skin extract of Brazil nuts showed the highest *in vitro* antioxidant activity, measured by DPPH, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, reducing power and ORAC assay. The brown skin showed the highest amount of soluble and insoluble-bound polyphenols and this coproduct of Brazil nuts can be considered an economical source of natural antioxidants.

Yang et al. [34] compared the phenolic content and antiproliferative activities of Brazil nuts and cashew. Cashew showed a higher concentration of both soluble (86.7 mg/100 g) and insoluble-bound (229.7 mg/100 g) phenolics when compared to Brazil nuts (46.2 mg/100 g of soluble and 123.1 mg/100 g of insoluble-bound). Brazil nuts did not display antiproliferative activity against HepG2 (human liver cancer cells) at the doses tested in the study (from 1 to 200 mg/mL). On the other hand, cashew displayed the effect at high doses (100-200 mg/mL). In addition, neither of them showed inhibition for human colon cancer cells (Caco-2) proliferation.

The roasting, which is a common process in nut preparation, has shown evidence to impact the phenolic composition of cashew and Brazil nuts in different ways. Özcan et al. [35] reported that the total phenolic content of Brazil nuts significantly decreased from 68.97 mg/100 (raw nut) to 66.47 mg/100 g when ovenroasted (130°C for 20 min). The microwave-roasted (720 W for 5 min) showed the highest impact on the phenolic compounds, decreasing from 68.97 mg/100 to 25.88 mg/100 g. The DPPH radical scavenging capacity of the phenolic extracts also declined from 81.77% in the raw nut to 40.66% in the oven-roasted nut and 34.60% in the microwave-roasted nut. On the other hand, Chandrasekara and Shahidi [21] demonstrated that oven-roasting cashew at 130°C for 33 min increased the total phenolic content (both soluble and insoluble-bound) of the whole nut, as well as the kernel and the testa. At the same time, the levels of proanthocyanidins decreased, except for soluble phenolic extract from the kernel. In particular, the concentrations of the flavonoids (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, and epigallocatechin were

enhanced after the roasting process, which also positively affected the antioxidant capacity of such extracts. According to the authors, these findings could be owed to the release of phenolics because of temperature, making them readily soluble in the extraction solvent. Although relatively high, the temperature was applied for a short period, which prevented an extensive degradation of polyphenols.

Pecan nutshell, a coproduct, have demonstrated great potential due to its rich phenolic composition and high antioxidant capacity. According to Hilbig et al. [36], extracts from this coproduct obtained under optimum conditions yielded total phenolic contents of 426.15-581.9 mg GAE/g, resulting in antioxidant activities of 2574.32-2573 μmol TEAC/g and 1268.03-1287.08 μmol TEAC/g measured by ABTS and DPPH assays, respectively. The extracts showed a variety of 29 different phenolic compounds, with gallic acid as the predominant one.

Demoliner et al. [9, 18] investigated the nutritional and phytochemical composition of sapucaia nut. The oil extracted from the nuts presented a considerable amount of total tocopherols (21.8-29.9 mg/100 g), with γ-tocopherol identified as the primary homolog (19.2-28.5 mg/100 g). α- and δ-Tocopherols were also identified in smaller quantities. Mounting evidence has shown that γ-Tocopherol excels in scavenging reactive oxygen species, which play an essential role in the development of chronic diseases [37–39]. Sapucaia nut oil also showed a significant concentration of phytosterols, namely β-sitosterol (92.8-193.9 mg/100 g), stigmasterol (9.92- 13.2 mg/100 g), and campesterol (8.42-9.63 mg/100 g) [9].

Demoliner et al. [9] extracted the phenolic compounds from sapucaia nut and shell and used LC-ESI-MS/MS to identify and quantify the individual polyphenols present. The nut extracts were composed of 14 compounds, mainly phenolic acids, and flavonoids, with myricetin, vanillic, ferulic, and ellagic acid showing the highest amounts. Interestingly, shell extracts demonstrated to carry a greater variety of phenolics, with 22 compounds identified, with high levels of phenolic acids (gallic, protocatechuic, vanillic, ferulic, and ellagic) and flavonoids (epigallocatechin, catechin, epicatechin, taxifolin, myricetin, and vanillin). Shell extracts were also superior to the nut extracts in terms of *in vitro* antioxidant activity, measured by DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS. These outcomes highlight the potential for using nuts coproducts as sources of natural antioxidants.

Similar to sapucaia, the coproducts of chichá, namely the pellicle (26.26 mg GAE/g) and the shell (21.42 mg GAE/g), have been reported to be richer in total phenolic compounds than the nut (16.85 mg GAE/g). The extracts presented a wide variety of phenolic acids, such as ellagic, ferulic, salicylic, protocatechuic, and rosmarinic acid [8].

It has been reported that monguba oil is source of γ-tocopherol (513.5 mg/kg). In addition, ten phenolic compounds have been identified, mainly phenolic acids and flavonoids. The majority of phenolics (74.58%) were in the esterified form, followed by the glycosylated (13.02%), free (8.22%), and insoluble bound (4.18%) forms. Caffeic acid Monguba was the main phenolic compound found in this raw material (57.5%) [10].

Teixeira et al. [11] reported total phenolic contents ranging from 31.92 to 54.05 mg GAE/kg for pracaxi oil extracted by supercritical CO2 extraction. The highest phenolic content and in vitro antioxidant activity of the extracts was obtained using 200 bar at 40-60°C. The oils obtained under low pressure demonstrated high antioxidant capacity measure by the CUPRAC method, indicating a significant content of both hydrophilic (phenolics) and lipophilic (carotenoids and tocopherols) antioxidants. The presence of natural antioxidants may also have positively affected the stability oxidative index (OSI of 11.38 h at 110°C and 10.83 at 120°C), which suggests a prolonged shelf life for the oil [11].

**147**

*Valorization of Native Nuts from Brazil and Their Coproducts*

**4. Bioavailability and health-promoting benefits**

The nutritional profile and bioactive compounds present in Brazilian nuts are certainly a positive characteristic of these raw materials. However, the presence of these nutrients and minor compounds do not guarantee their conversion into health-promoting benefits. They need to be efficiently released from the food matrix and be absorbed in sufficient amounts to be converted into biologically active metabolites for having and positive impact on human health. In addition, the potentially toxic compounds should be assessed to ensure its safety. That is especially true when considering expanding the commercialization of relatively unknown nuts, like the ones we have been presenting throughout this chapter. Moreda-Piñeiro et al. [40] assessed the *in vitro* bioavailability of essential and toxic metals in several nuts and seeds, including Brazil nuts and cashew. Essential metals (Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cu, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, P, Pb, Se, Sr., Tl, and Zn) consistently presented moderate bioavailability (dialyzability of 2.1-40.7%) among the samples. The exception was iron, which presented a low dialyzability (0.70-3.7%). On the other hand, toxic metals (Al, Ba, Cd, and Hg) demonstrated poor bioavailability (dialyzability ratios between 0.35-16.8%). The results suggest that the consumption of these nuts can be considered as safe and beneficial because of the high bioavailability of the essential metals. The authors also found a positive correlation between carbohydrate content and dialyzability ratio, meaning that the higher the carbohydrate concentration, the greater the bioavailability. On the other hand, nuts

with high-fat content were found to present lower mineral bioavailability. Nascimento et al. [41] reported the *in vitro* bioavailability of Cu and Fe in cashew nuts using simulated gastric and intestinal fluids as well as dialysis procedures. The results showed that 83% of Cu and 78% of Fe were recovered during the experiment, indicating a high level of bioavailability for these minerals in cashew nuts. These two minerals are essential for a variety of physiological and metabolic processes. Cu deficiency can lead to high blood pressure and infertility, while Fe

Using an *in vitro* dialyzability approach, Herbello-Hermelo et al. [42] evaluated the bioavailability of the polyphenol fraction of selected nuts and seeds. Brazil nuts and cashew were among the samples with the highest recovery of phenolics in the digested extracts (81 and 89%, respectively). The authors also showed that polyphenol bioavailability was dependent on Cu content. This can be explained by the

Brazil nuts are one of the main sources of Se in nature, which are constituents of selenoproteins (e.g., glutathione peroxidases – GSH-Px), enzymes that are part of the endogenous antioxidant defenses system. A high blood concentration of such enzymes is associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular diseases. Stockler-Pinto et al. [43] conducted a human trial on the supplementation of Brazil nuts to patients on hemodialysis, which produces a large amount of reactive oxygen species. The administration of one nut per day for three months increased the subjects' GSH-Px activity. Before the supplementation, 11% of the patients presented GSH-Px levels below the normal range. After the supplementation, all subjects

Inflammation processes are essential biological responses when the organism needs to fight intrusive agents. However, inflammatory disorders are extremely damaging and can lead to conditions such as cancer, type 1 diabetes, and rheumatoid arthritis, among others [44]. Colpo et al. [45] monitored the activity of

and phenolics, with the latter being reported

, even though the mechanism by which this happens is not

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.95056*

deficiency can cause anemia.

strong binding ability between Cu+

showed results within the normal range.

to reduce Cu2+ to Cu+

entirely understood yet.

*Innovation in the Food Sector Through the Valorization of Food and Agro-Food By-Products*

period, which prevented an extensive degradation of polyphenols.

phenolic compounds, with gallic acid as the predominant one.

13.2 mg/100 g), and campesterol (8.42-9.63 mg/100 g) [9].

coproducts as sources of natural antioxidants.

rosmarinic acid [8].

(57.5%) [10].

enhanced after the roasting process, which also positively affected the antioxidant capacity of such extracts. According to the authors, these findings could be owed to the release of phenolics because of temperature, making them readily soluble in the extraction solvent. Although relatively high, the temperature was applied for a short

Pecan nutshell, a coproduct, have demonstrated great potential due to its rich phenolic composition and high antioxidant capacity. According to Hilbig et al. [36], extracts from this coproduct obtained under optimum conditions yielded total phenolic contents of 426.15-581.9 mg GAE/g, resulting in antioxidant activities of 2574.32-2573 μmol TEAC/g and 1268.03-1287.08 μmol TEAC/g measured by ABTS and DPPH assays, respectively. The extracts showed a variety of 29 different

Demoliner et al. [9, 18] investigated the nutritional and phytochemical composition of sapucaia nut. The oil extracted from the nuts presented a considerable amount of total tocopherols (21.8-29.9 mg/100 g), with γ-tocopherol identified as the primary homolog (19.2-28.5 mg/100 g). α- and δ-Tocopherols were also identified in smaller quantities. Mounting evidence has shown that γ-Tocopherol excels in scavenging reactive oxygen species, which play an essential role in the development of chronic diseases [37–39]. Sapucaia nut oil also showed a significant concentration of phytosterols, namely β-sitosterol (92.8-193.9 mg/100 g), stigmasterol (9.92-

Demoliner et al. [9] extracted the phenolic compounds from sapucaia nut and shell and used LC-ESI-MS/MS to identify and quantify the individual polyphenols present. The nut extracts were composed of 14 compounds, mainly phenolic acids, and flavonoids, with myricetin, vanillic, ferulic, and ellagic acid showing the highest amounts. Interestingly, shell extracts demonstrated to carry a greater variety of phenolics, with 22 compounds identified, with high levels of phenolic acids (gallic, protocatechuic, vanillic, ferulic, and ellagic) and flavonoids (epigallocatechin, catechin, epicatechin, taxifolin, myricetin, and vanillin). Shell extracts were also superior to the nut extracts in terms of *in vitro* antioxidant activity, measured by DPPH, FRAP, and ABTS. These outcomes highlight the potential for using nuts

Similar to sapucaia, the coproducts of chichá, namely the pellicle (26.26 mg GAE/g) and the shell (21.42 mg GAE/g), have been reported to be richer in total phenolic compounds than the nut (16.85 mg GAE/g). The extracts presented a wide variety of phenolic acids, such as ellagic, ferulic, salicylic, protocatechuic, and

It has been reported that monguba oil is source of γ-tocopherol (513.5 mg/kg). In addition, ten phenolic compounds have been identified, mainly phenolic acids and flavonoids. The majority of phenolics (74.58%) were in the esterified form, followed by the glycosylated (13.02%), free (8.22%), and insoluble bound (4.18%) forms. Caffeic acid Monguba was the main phenolic compound found in this raw material

Teixeira et al. [11] reported total phenolic contents ranging from 31.92 to 54.05 mg GAE/kg for pracaxi oil extracted by supercritical CO2 extraction. The highest phenolic content and in vitro antioxidant activity of the extracts was obtained using 200 bar at 40-60°C. The oils obtained under low pressure demonstrated high antioxidant capacity measure by the CUPRAC method, indicating a significant content of both hydrophilic (phenolics) and lipophilic (carotenoids and tocopherols) antioxidants. The presence of natural antioxidants may also have positively affected the stability oxidative index (OSI of 11.38 h at 110°C and 10.83 at

120°C), which suggests a prolonged shelf life for the oil [11].

**146**
