**4.5 And? The consequences of assessment**

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World*

that they do not assess language.

unrealistic as can be seen below.

**4.4 How to assess**

matter teachers and was reported as very important in assessment. However, in study II among migrant students, subject concepts were perceived as difficult for the students. *Subject-specific skills* (e.g. to argue, to reason and be able to draw conclusions) that are stated in the knowledge requirements were considered the most important for assessment. The *general academic language* as well as *subject-specific written or oral genre* were not reported to be as important for assessment, and yet many teachers stated that lack of language represented a problem when interpreting assessment results. Teachers also expressed challenges due to insufficient language in relation to higher-order skills which meant that attainment of the highest grades was considered difficult or even unrealistic. Most teachers in both contexts stated

The confusion as to what represents content and language becomes evident in contexts with language learners. Since standards are used which also include expected outcomes in relation to communication skills, the solution is to identify and map the language skills that are embedded in the curriculum. The solution then is to integrate language development within disciplinary teaching and learning [10, 29]. Some may claim that the solution is in finding assessment formats that avoid the use of language, and construct-irrelevant variance, but this seems

While the intended learning outcomes and aim of the subject come first, the intended 'how' of assessment needs to be considered already at the outset. In a backwards design, where all students are to be given access and opportunities to learn the necessary skills and language, the targeted forms of presentation need to be included in the planning of a course. "[I]t is not the elements per se, but rather their organization and sequencing, expression, relative emphasis and degree of alignment that differentiate effective from ineffective subject design" ([46], p. 95). In a universal design there needs to be flexibility to cater for students' various needs, but it has also been stated that what is good for disadvantaged students is good for all. In this study several teachers said that they had noted that all students, regardless of first language, need help with their language development, even native Swedish speakers. Using an alignment and fairness perspective the how of assessment can be said to include both preparation for assessment, the actual assessment design and format, including accommodations and support used for language learners in this case as well as the grading process that follows. As noted previously the teachers in both contexts expressed a preference for written assessment formats, but especially teachers of newly arrived migrants said that they use "anything that

works" to get some information about the students' content knowledge.

Teachers in both contexts mentioned oral assessment serving as an accommodation for poor written expression, which brings up concerns as to whether the oral assessment results might indeed equal written results, and whether students might have been given the opportunity to practice their oral expression during the course of study leading into the testing phase. Other accommodations that are typically suggested as reducing the negative impact of insufficient language proficiency include, for instance, allowance for the use of dictionaries, the use of simplified language or extended time (cf [62]). However, Abedi [63] raises concerns over the validity of certain accommodations, since studies show that they may affect the end results of second-language speakers and native speakers alike, thus representing a threat to the validity of test-results. Stobart [64] mentions three areas where equity should be considered in relation to fairness in assessment across groups: questions of access (differences in resources), curriculum (what is taught, why and how);

**338**

It is well known, that language proficiency impacts the results of contentarea assessments. Research shows that multilinguals, who hold the same ability levels with native speakers show lower probability of correctly solving test items in mathematics [65–67]. Kane's [3] distinction *substantive fairness,* which was described previously, means that different assessment procedures are required for different students in order to achieve comparable results. In a similar vein Gee [68] and Stobart [64] state that equity in assessment hinges on students' equal opportunities for learning. Wherever there are standards and intended learning outcomes, teachers need to consider what is required of the students in terms of language proficiency. It has been argued that the alignment between specific forms of learning, assessment format and how the assessment data/results are used has been disconnected [69]. In the Swedish case in point a variation in how teachers perceive of their role as language educators can be seen, how and if they prepare students with required language skills for succeeding in the assessment. There are also inconsistencies in language policy. Such can be found, both in what appears to be a confusion or unawareness about the different underlying ontological and epistemological foundations. The discrepancy exists between on the one hand, a non-essentialist disaggregated translingual view, apart from the named languages, and a traditional essentialist view which allows for predefined language standards and learning outcomes. No matter which foundations, consequences need to be considered in order to ensure equitable and comparable assessment practices, that is, to define intended learning outcomes (ILOs) in the target language (TL). This needs to be adopted both for the disciplinary language and the language of instruction, and needs to align the assessment format and procedures with the instructions (see **Figure 3** below). This amounts to a adoption of a non-essentialist ontology which allows any language to be used, as is prevalent e.g. in translingual practices. The translingual pedagogy therefore, requires other measures in order to achieve comparability of results, including analyses of its consequences for society and students' opportunities in life. These aspects present a gap in current research which need more input in order for empirically based robust practices to emerge.

#### **Figure 3.**

*Alignment of languages in education with intended learning outcomes, target language (TL) and future use. ([15], p. 224).*

Based on the study in the Swedish context [15], This chapter has argued that the target language outcomes can and should be identified within curricula and they ought to be taught and modeled in order to provide equity and comparability in assessment. Below the findings from this case in point are applied to another context within similar circumstances and share a few suggestions for improved practice.

## **5. Applicability to other contexts**

The issues discussed in this chapter are indeed applicable at all levels of education. This is justified by the increasing multilingualism and linguistic diversity within the global teaching and learning arena and has become ever more widespread throughout levels of compulsory education to university programs.

This chapter puts forward suggestions for improving curriculum design which encompass a consultative approach involving language teachers, assessment experts and academic developers. Improving teacher assessment literacy, calls for concerted efforts in focus on professional development and training in assessment across the curriculum. Lastly, the impetus of engaging the community of teachers across levels of education from primary to tertiary levels requires a raising of awareness about the benefits of generic skills and abilities for example, in academic literacy. This is an area which may have become shadowed in the current climate of quality assurance. Organization around educational quality calls for efforts across the community of educators by way of concrete strategies, measures and their implementation across the diversity of dimensions. In this process, the issues of equity are of paramount importance for maintaining and regenerating an assessment culture that reaps its strength from socially just and diversity focused global language communities.

#### **6. Concluding remarks**

This chapter is based on an assumption that fair assessment cannot be considered in isolation of either curriculum nor students' educational opportunities [64]. This study posits that fairness and comparability in assessment hinges precisely on fairness in the access to subject content learning, including its forms of language use. This means that students must be given opportunities to learn the language skills that are required in the how and what of assessment. As Stobart [64] claims, we may never achieve fair assessment, but we may be able to make it much more fair-minded. In order to do that, this study agrees with suggestions that every teacher across the educational spectrum, needs to also be a language teacher, in a sense. Secondly this chapter suggests that there are inconsistencies in policy and practice, which need to be systematically addressed, as Lachat [70] claims educational standards might not improve student achievement unless they are accompanied by policies and practices that directly address inequities in resourcing. Here resourcing refers to the teachers' assessment literacy and language teaching strategies. Regardless of whether time constraints restrict teachers' opportunities to teach academic writing in every single course, teachers must be equipped with a readiness to model certain elements of language or academic oral or written genre and register. Therefore concurring, with the universal design for learning, UDL and fairness theory, this chapter suggests that planning for support at the point of designing of the curriculum, as opposed to waiting until needing to make reactive modifications to it, will considerably help reduce the stress among students as well

**341**

**Author details**

educational future.

Helena Reierstam\* and Meeri Hellstén

provided the original work is properly cited.

\*Address all correspondence to: helena.reierstam@edu.su.se

© 2021 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

Stockholm University, Sweden

*Linguistic Diversity and Comparability in Educational Assessment*

as their teachers across the board. It will also help increase the quality in education, teaching in more responsible and responsive ways, and hopefully it will have a positive effect even on assessment outcomes. Teacher education therefore, must enable equipping teachers with an awareness of the requirements placed upon equitable assessors in and for linguistically diverse classrooms. This implies measures on how to align the language requirements that are integrated in the course objectives, with multiple means of representation in order to both build upon and communicate required curricular knowledge. It is also relevant in this respect, to critically reflect on whether the common forms, or modes of assessment are appropriate for all learners. At an organizational level, different questions need to be addressed; e.g. why we teach in a particular way, who is responsible for fostering generic skills, what knowledge and competences are advocated and assessed in curricula - maybe this calls for a paradigmatic change in the curriculum guidelines? Such guidelines might harness the changes currently shaking the foundations of a globalized

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97405*

#### *Linguistic Diversity and Comparability in Educational Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97405*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World*

Based on the study in the Swedish context [15], This chapter has argued that the target language outcomes can and should be identified within curricula and they ought to be taught and modeled in order to provide equity and comparability in assessment. Below the findings from this case in point are applied to another context within similar circumstances and share a few suggestions for improved

The issues discussed in this chapter are indeed applicable at all levels of education. This is justified by the increasing multilingualism and linguistic diversity within the global teaching and learning arena and has become ever more widespread throughout levels of compulsory education to university programs.

This chapter puts forward suggestions for improving curriculum design which encompass a consultative approach involving language teachers, assessment experts and academic developers. Improving teacher assessment literacy, calls for concerted efforts in focus on professional development and training in assessment across the curriculum. Lastly, the impetus of engaging the community of teachers across levels of education from primary to tertiary levels requires a raising of awareness about the benefits of generic skills and abilities for example, in academic literacy. This is an area which may have become shadowed in the current climate of quality assurance. Organization around educational quality calls for efforts across the community of educators by way of concrete strategies, measures and their implementation across the diversity of dimensions. In this process, the issues of equity are of paramount importance for maintaining and regenerating an assessment culture that reaps its strength from socially just and diversity focused global language

This chapter is based on an assumption that fair assessment cannot be considered in isolation of either curriculum nor students' educational opportunities [64]. This study posits that fairness and comparability in assessment hinges precisely on fairness in the access to subject content learning, including its forms of language use. This means that students must be given opportunities to learn the language skills that are required in the how and what of assessment. As Stobart [64] claims, we may never achieve fair assessment, but we may be able to make it much more fair-minded. In order to do that, this study agrees with suggestions that every teacher across the educational spectrum, needs to also be a language teacher, in a sense. Secondly this chapter suggests that there are inconsistencies in policy and practice, which need to be systematically addressed, as Lachat [70] claims educational standards might not improve student achievement unless they are accompanied by policies and practices that directly address inequities in resourcing. Here resourcing refers to the teachers' assessment literacy and language teaching strategies. Regardless of whether time constraints restrict teachers' opportunities to teach academic writing in every single course, teachers must be equipped with a readiness to model certain elements of language or academic oral or written genre and register. Therefore concurring, with the universal design for learning, UDL and fairness theory, this chapter suggests that planning for support at the point of designing of the curriculum, as opposed to waiting until needing to make reactive modifications to it, will considerably help reduce the stress among students as well

**340**

practice.

communities.

**6. Concluding remarks**

**5. Applicability to other contexts**

as their teachers across the board. It will also help increase the quality in education, teaching in more responsible and responsive ways, and hopefully it will have a positive effect even on assessment outcomes. Teacher education therefore, must enable equipping teachers with an awareness of the requirements placed upon equitable assessors in and for linguistically diverse classrooms. This implies measures on how to align the language requirements that are integrated in the course objectives, with multiple means of representation in order to both build upon and communicate required curricular knowledge. It is also relevant in this respect, to critically reflect on whether the common forms, or modes of assessment are appropriate for all learners. At an organizational level, different questions need to be addressed; e.g. why we teach in a particular way, who is responsible for fostering generic skills, what knowledge and competences are advocated and assessed in curricula - maybe this calls for a paradigmatic change in the curriculum guidelines? Such guidelines might harness the changes currently shaking the foundations of a globalized educational future.
