**Abstract**

This chapter reports on recent mixed method research investigating the comparability between assessment in relation to linguistic and cultural diversity. It takes as its premise that assessment is an integral part of instruction that becomes a main component for attaining of equal opportunities. Therefore, assessment plays a key role in terms of the wider consequences at both individual and societal levels. One of the central functions of assessment is its measure of quality assurance and comparability for grading to such an extent that it is readily employed to indicate evidence of student achievement of standards and quality. This may sometimes present issues in terms of learner diversity. We focus on the challenges facing teaching in linguistically diverse learning settings in which a foreign language may be used as an alternative to instruction. Here we draw on a recent study from two separate multilingual learning contexts in Sweden. We shed light on the generic questions arising from such disjuncture in these linguistically diverse educational sites as evidence on a call for much needed scholarly attention on the quality aspect in assessment.

**Keywords:** comparability in assessment, target language, intended learning outcomes (ILOs), CLIL, language learners, diversity, quality education

#### **1. Introduction**

This chapter takes up on the issue of comparability of academic assessment in contexts of linguistic and cultural diversity. In schooling, assessment is an integral part of instruction and in a meritocratic society assessment of educational achievement becomes key to the attainment of equal opportunities [1] and its consequences for individuals as well as for society at large cannot be overlooked. The central function of assessment is a measure of quality assurance and comparability in educational grading and is used as evidence of student attainment in relation to standards [2]. A fair claim might be that assessment is probably one of the most critical aspects of the teaching and learning process, since the assessments made by teachers will influence both future prospects and further opportunities in students' lives and careers, but importantly may also impact on student motivation and wellbeing. Respect for learning is therefore accomplished when teachers have insight into their authority as assessors to provide fair and equitable assessment practices for all [3, 4]. Bal and Trainor [5] note that assessment which disregards issues of diversity and equity contributes to inequalities in outcomes. However, assessment

that is fair to all can also serve as a bridge to educational equity [6]. All of this amounts to assessment having implications at both individual and societal levels.

Language as a meaning making device is needed in order for students to validate their knowledge and make the cognitive thought processes inter-subjectively accessible to an assessing teacher. Language plays a vital role in accessing and communicating subject content and it is thus of paramount importance that all students are granted opportunities to use and learn how to use the language needed for learning and for the assessment purposes [7–11]. In a globalized society perhaps more students than ever are instructed in a second language rather than in their first language [12] due to reasons of migration but also incentives to meet the demands of an increasingly culturally and linguistically diverse global market. In order to meet the growing demands of diversity in our classrooms, The European Commission (2003) has advocated the use of novel teaching approaches, involving the use of foreign language as the medium of instruction within the subject curriculum with the added effect of promoting the spread of learning more languages. Knowledge of multiple languages is key to enhancing life and work of individuals, according to a recent report [13]. Subsequently, most universities have developed international curriculum options [14], leading to that many teachers find themselves engaged with students made up of different nationalities who sometimes fall short of native-speaker competences. It also means that English is often used as a lingua franca, with teachers as well as students, using a second or foreign language as the medium of instruction.

In relation to what has been outlined above, the challenges involved in teachers' assessment of students' subject matter knowledge in linguistically diverse classrooms where a foreign or second language is used as the medium of instruction need to be addressed. This chapter draws on a recent study [15] conducted in two different multilingual contexts in Sweden, which pinpoints generic questions in relation to assessment in linguistically diverse education in need for more scholarly attention. One justification for this derives from observed inconsistencies in ontology, policy and pedagogy, which will be discussed in the following. The inconsistencies relate to an interesting juxtaposition of two rather disparate concepts, *comparability* and *diversity*. Whereas comparability assumes a certain level of standardization in order to compare two similar or equivalent entities, diversity is defined as being composed of differing elements and variety. Hence, the pressing question arises if it is even feasible to find comparability in learning outcomes in linguistically and culturally diverse classrooms. How can learning standards, designed with the purpose to describe students' progress and make achievements comparable be applied in heterogeneous student groups? This is especially the case where cultural and linguistic diversity of students may be overlooked in generic language policies and practices for schooling. The quality of assessment is closely related to fairness in the judgment of learning outcomes as well as in learning opportunities, which means that linguistically heterogeneous student groups require new ways of integrating language skills assistance within the curriculum. At the end of this chapter some suggestions are discussed in relation to curriculum design, teacher assessment literacy, responsibility for academic literacy and the educational organization around these.

#### **2. Background**

As greater numbers of second language students appear at various levels in education, including college and university programs, there is a pressing need to create linguistically accessible instruction and learning. The term 'second language

**331**

*Linguistic Diversity and Comparability in Educational Assessment*

students' (or L2 students) here refers to any student whose primary language is not the majority language of the country in question, or to students whose first language (L1) is not the language of instruction. This is the case in learning spaces where a foreign language is used as the medium of instruction to promote the learning of other languages [16, 17] or where a language, often English, is targeted and used as an incentive for increased internalization (e.g. [18]). Content and language integrated learning, CLIL or English medium instruction, EMI [19–21] are sometimes used to label such teaching approaches. Whereas the teaching of curriculum content is said to be the primary focus in EMI and language learning is seen as incidental, CLIL is often described to have more purposely dual focus, language and content [22]. However, this is not necessarily always the case. Studies show that CLIL approaches fail to identify specific language learning outcomes in content courses or adopt appropriate teaching and assessment designs which accommodate the student's language learner backgrounds [18, 23]. Therefore, in order to achieve positive outcomes in both language and subject content in CLIL contexts it is desirable that "CLIL teachers should be experts in the content area and also have deep understanding of the cognitive, socio-cultural and psychological elements of

Courses are ordinarily designed around subject content being broken down into learning objectives or goals, with explicit criteria and levels of performance which are used to assess the quality of students' learning. The criteria specifically targets subject specific learning outcomes. However, generic graduate attributes and academic skills are explicitly or implicitly embedded as expected outcomes within the subjects. The generic skills can be labeled as *transversal skills, academic literacy, language across the curriculum* or *content compatible language*, in contrast to *contentobligatory/subject specific language* (Fortune & Tedick, n.d.; [25]). Whereas the latter, content-obligatory language, represents more or less distinct subject specific concepts or disciplinary genre that are characteristic for a subject discipline (e.g metamorphosis, post-war period) the others include generic elements of academic language, often characterized by a high level of linguistic density and abstraction [9, 26]. Schleppegrell [9] notes that the academic language features are especially challenging for students and need to be addressed in order to help students construct and organize knowledge in the subject disciplines. It is a matter of empower-

Based on the linguistic diversity in general education several voices have been

Universal design for learning, UDL, evolved as a set of principles to make general education accessible for students with disabilities. The goal is to value diversity while promoting equality and inclusiveness by providing flexibility to adjust and cater for students' different strengths and needs [30, 31]. The name may be misleading since the term *universal* refers to the use of a variety of teaching methods, rather than one way, in order to remove barriers to learning and give all students equal opportunities to succeed. Edyburn [32] notes that when designing instruction for the academic success of diverse students, it is important to identify *when, where, why* and *how* learners will get stuck. UDL has been described as especially helpful for second

raised claiming that all teachers need to be 'language teachers' in some sense (e.g. [6, 9, 10, 27, 28]). "Over the years we have found that teaching content in a language in which the students have limited proficiency differs significantly from teaching that same content in a students' first language. Teachers need a repertoire of strategies to ensure that students develop both content and language skills" ([27], p. 36). If teaching and modeling language is not part of the curriculum, an alternative approach may be to make modifications in the intended learning outcomes, what Barker [29] refers to as "an ill-advised lowering of standards

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97405*

foreign language learning" ([24], p. 88).

ing students through an appropriate pedagogy.

or a necessary and pragmatic response".

#### *Linguistic Diversity and Comparability in Educational Assessment DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.97405*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World*

as the medium of instruction.

educational organization around these.

that is fair to all can also serve as a bridge to educational equity [6]. All of this amounts to assessment having implications at both individual and societal levels. Language as a meaning making device is needed in order for students to validate their knowledge and make the cognitive thought processes inter-subjectively accessible to an assessing teacher. Language plays a vital role in accessing and communicating subject content and it is thus of paramount importance that all students are granted opportunities to use and learn how to use the language needed for learning and for the assessment purposes [7–11]. In a globalized society perhaps more students than ever are instructed in a second language rather than in their first language [12] due to reasons of migration but also incentives to meet the demands of an increasingly culturally and linguistically diverse global market. In order to meet the growing demands of diversity in our classrooms, The European Commission (2003) has advocated the use of novel teaching approaches, involving the use of foreign language as the medium of instruction within the subject curriculum with the added effect of promoting the spread of learning more languages. Knowledge of multiple languages is key to enhancing life and work of individuals, according to a recent report [13]. Subsequently, most universities have developed international curriculum options [14], leading to that many teachers find themselves engaged with students made up of different nationalities who sometimes fall short of native-speaker competences. It also means that English is often used as a lingua franca, with teachers as well as students, using a second or foreign language

In relation to what has been outlined above, the challenges involved in teachers' assessment of students' subject matter knowledge in linguistically diverse classrooms where a foreign or second language is used as the medium of instruction need to be addressed. This chapter draws on a recent study [15] conducted in two different multilingual contexts in Sweden, which pinpoints generic questions in relation to assessment in linguistically diverse education in need for more scholarly attention. One justification for this derives from observed inconsistencies in ontology, policy and pedagogy, which will be discussed in the following. The inconsistencies relate to an interesting juxtaposition of two rather disparate concepts, *comparability* and *diversity*. Whereas comparability assumes a certain level of standardization in order to compare two similar or equivalent entities, diversity is defined as being composed of differing elements and variety. Hence, the pressing question arises if it is even feasible to find comparability in learning outcomes in linguistically and culturally diverse classrooms. How can learning standards, designed with the purpose to describe students' progress and make achievements comparable be applied in heterogeneous student groups? This is especially the case where cultural and linguistic diversity of students may be overlooked in generic language policies and practices for schooling. The quality of assessment is closely related to fairness in the judgment of learning outcomes as well as in learning opportunities, which means that linguistically heterogeneous student groups require new ways of integrating language skills assistance within the curriculum. At the end of this chapter some suggestions are discussed in relation to curriculum design, teacher assessment literacy, responsibility for academic literacy and the

As greater numbers of second language students appear at various levels in education, including college and university programs, there is a pressing need to create linguistically accessible instruction and learning. The term 'second language

**330**

**2. Background**

students' (or L2 students) here refers to any student whose primary language is not the majority language of the country in question, or to students whose first language (L1) is not the language of instruction. This is the case in learning spaces where a foreign language is used as the medium of instruction to promote the learning of other languages [16, 17] or where a language, often English, is targeted and used as an incentive for increased internalization (e.g. [18]). Content and language integrated learning, CLIL or English medium instruction, EMI [19–21] are sometimes used to label such teaching approaches. Whereas the teaching of curriculum content is said to be the primary focus in EMI and language learning is seen as incidental, CLIL is often described to have more purposely dual focus, language and content [22]. However, this is not necessarily always the case. Studies show that CLIL approaches fail to identify specific language learning outcomes in content courses or adopt appropriate teaching and assessment designs which accommodate the student's language learner backgrounds [18, 23]. Therefore, in order to achieve positive outcomes in both language and subject content in CLIL contexts it is desirable that "CLIL teachers should be experts in the content area and also have deep understanding of the cognitive, socio-cultural and psychological elements of foreign language learning" ([24], p. 88).

Courses are ordinarily designed around subject content being broken down into learning objectives or goals, with explicit criteria and levels of performance which are used to assess the quality of students' learning. The criteria specifically targets subject specific learning outcomes. However, generic graduate attributes and academic skills are explicitly or implicitly embedded as expected outcomes within the subjects. The generic skills can be labeled as *transversal skills, academic literacy, language across the curriculum* or *content compatible language*, in contrast to *contentobligatory/subject specific language* (Fortune & Tedick, n.d.; [25]). Whereas the latter, content-obligatory language, represents more or less distinct subject specific concepts or disciplinary genre that are characteristic for a subject discipline (e.g metamorphosis, post-war period) the others include generic elements of academic language, often characterized by a high level of linguistic density and abstraction [9, 26]. Schleppegrell [9] notes that the academic language features are especially challenging for students and need to be addressed in order to help students construct and organize knowledge in the subject disciplines. It is a matter of empowering students through an appropriate pedagogy.

Based on the linguistic diversity in general education several voices have been raised claiming that all teachers need to be 'language teachers' in some sense (e.g. [6, 9, 10, 27, 28]). "Over the years we have found that teaching content in a language in which the students have limited proficiency differs significantly from teaching that same content in a students' first language. Teachers need a repertoire of strategies to ensure that students develop both content and language skills" ([27], p. 36). If teaching and modeling language is not part of the curriculum, an alternative approach may be to make modifications in the intended learning outcomes, what Barker [29] refers to as "an ill-advised lowering of standards or a necessary and pragmatic response".

Universal design for learning, UDL, evolved as a set of principles to make general education accessible for students with disabilities. The goal is to value diversity while promoting equality and inclusiveness by providing flexibility to adjust and cater for students' different strengths and needs [30, 31]. The name may be misleading since the term *universal* refers to the use of a variety of teaching methods, rather than one way, in order to remove barriers to learning and give all students equal opportunities to succeed. Edyburn [32] notes that when designing instruction for the academic success of diverse students, it is important to identify *when, where, why* and *how* learners will get stuck. UDL has been described as especially helpful for second

language learners where evidently language deficiency may be an important reason they are denied equal access to learning. Edyburn [32] notes that when supports are embedded already in the design of the curriculum, it reduces the likelihood of student failure and frustration as well as alleviating the stress for teachers to reactively create accommodations and modifications. When the UDL principles – to provide multiple means of representation, multiple means of action and expression and multiple means of engagement – are applied among language learners, the teachers will help the students to have an opportunity to build background knowledge, interact with information visually as well as auditorily. They will also provide rich scaffolding and support to help highlight the patterns of language and allow the students to have numerous opportunities to express their knowledge in meaningful ways (Novak, n.d.). The option to build in numerous, or different ways of communicating knowledge already at the initial planning of a course aligns with assessment validity theory which is further outlined below. UDL pedagogy has been identified as a way to provide fairer tests by using multiple ways of action and test items which take the students' diverse backgrounds into account, not relying on cultural information outside of what has been taught or presented in the test content [33, 34]. Fovet [34] notes that accommodations and inclusive pedagogy are often considered unnecessary for graduate students since they supposedly have already adopted academic strategies. However, as argued by Fovet [34], traditional forms of accommodations are ineffective with regards to the great diversity that can be found among students today. Haigh [35] further notes that teaching learners with different cultures, worldviews and aptitudes is an abiding problem in Higher Education which calls for a design for pluralism, especially in assessment, to reach educational inclusivity.

UDL explicitly forwards a framework for the design of lesson plans and assessments based on three main principles: to provide multiple means of representation, multiple means of action and expression, and multiple means of engagement. This can also be identified in other models used for the instruction of language learners. Two decades ago, Gibbons [36] for instance, spoke of scaffolding learning by using a genre-based curriculum cycle, starting by building knowledge together of the field, modeling text types, working through joint construction of subject specific genre before reaching students' independent writing. While the underlying UDL methodology is already employed by many, whether identified specifically as universal design or not, this is challenging for teachers for many reasons, one being time constraints, or as mentioned here, unfamiliarity with language teaching strategies. It is not only a challenge, but a threat to fairness and comparability in education if this becomes a matter of individual choice and experience, rather than a shared responsibility. As mentioned here in the introduction inconsistencies in the alignment of policy and pedagogy involving difficulties in matching intended learning outcomes and standards with student cohorts which lack expected academic skills at the outset need to be regarded as a shared concern in quality education. In the next section the theoretical framework and underpinnings adopted in this chapter are presented.
