**Abstract**

Temperament is a contextual and biological trait that influences how an individual interacts with the environment. Although scholars have organized and prioritized different dimensions of temperament, in this chapter we focus on temperament dimensions that are most salient to—and how they are exhibited in—early childhood classrooms. Temperament continues to be an important topic in early childhood classrooms because it is both important for children learning to manage their social emotional competence, which relates to long-term academic success and positive mental health, and for teachers to develop classroom management skills that provide a positive climate for an array of children and temperament types. After introducing the notion of temperament, we describe how teachers may create environments and react to children in ways that support child temperament. Finally, *INSIGHTS into Children's Temperament*, an empirically based social–emotional intervention, will be introduced. This intervention focuses on how children's temperament unfolds in the classroom and how the adults in children's lives can create "goodness-of-fit" for optimal outcomes.

**Keywords:** temperament, early childhood, elementary classroom, INSIGHTS intervention

### **1. Introduction**

Children's behavior in school settings varies widely depending on the situation and setting (e.g., from child to child as well as within an individual child). Child behavior is highly variable within the early school years because critical selfregulation skills, that assist with adhering to expectations of teachers and peers, are still developing [1]. For many young children, typical behavioral expressions include negative behaviors indicative of anger (i.e., yelling, hitting) or sadness (i.e., crying), and positive behaviors indicative of sociability (e.g., greeting new children) and persistence (e.g., sticking to a task until it is completed). Thus, children are not only greatly affected by their encircling environment [2, 3], but also by their individual, internal characteristics such as temperament [4–6]; the interplay between environment and individual temperament creates a transactional

relationship between how children both receive and affect their environments, specifically the classroom [6, 7].

Social emotional competence, which includes temperament awareness and self-regulation development, is important for young children to process and positively interact with various social stimuli [1]. Environmental stimuli may include stressors or trauma that directly or indirectly influence an individual [8]. A 2007 study [8] suggests that at least five million children in the United States "experience some extreme traumatic event". These traumatic experiences include natural disasters as well as human-caused social problems [8]. A 2016 study [9] found that 48% of children in their sample were influenced by some form of violence, and therefore victimization, within the previous school year. In addition to these existing traumas, the current years have brought forth novel national and global stressors. Cornonavirus-19 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic that has potentially affected every household and every school; although limited research has been published about the COVID-19 effects on young children, it can be hypothesized that this natural disaster will greatly increase child trauma and stress [10]. Racial injustice and economic declines are also global phenomena about which society has grown more aware due to COVID-19. Thus, early social competence development is needed for children to avoid negative consequences such as post-traumatic stress disorder [1, 8]. This chapter aims to provide useful information about child temperament as well as an intervention that provides important social–emotional development to young children promoting long-term positive development and mental health.

Temperament refers to individual genetic and personality differences in disposition that represent emotional reactivity and self-regulation [5, 7, 11, 12]. Emotional reactivity is conceptualized as an individual's natural and initial response to environmental stimuli and is measured in terms of the duration and intensity of the response [5, 12, 13]. Self-regulation refers to the ability to adapt or control one's "temperamental reactivity" [13]. That is, temperamental regulation is the ability to modulate emotional and behavioral reactions to the environment [5, 12]. In this way, reactivity and regulation are synergistic; regulation *modulates* an individual's reactivity. Temperament reflects differences in biology, emotion, and behavior; although temperament adaptability develops overtime, essential aspects of an individual's temperament remain and continue to characterize that person across the lifespan [7].

#### **2. Historical context of temperament research**

Temperament has been studied since the 1970's and remains relevant in today's classrooms. Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess [14] launched the New York Longitudinal Study—a multiple dimension examination of temperament in infants. This set the foundation for contemporary research on temperament [14]. Inspired by observing their own children, Thomas and Chess conducted parent interviews regarding their infants' behavior in various contexts and in-depth observations of infants aged 3–6 months [15]. Noting individual differences in the infants' primary reaction patterns, they observed nine temperament dimensions: activity level, adaptability, approach-withdrawal, attention span/task persistence, distractibility, intensity, mood, rhythmicity, and threshold to responsiveness [15]. Activity refers to the level of motor activity. Adaptability is defined by how easily a child adapts to changes or transitions in the environment, whereas approachwithdrawal is how a child responds to new stimuli [16]. Attention span or task persistence is how long a child sticks with an activity when difficulties arise, as

**255**

is due to environmental influences [26].

*Temperament in the Early Elementary Classroom: Implications for Practice*

opposed to distractibility, which is the extent to which a child may be distracted by a stimulus and change behavior. Intensity is the level of energy a child displays in responses (i.e., happiness, sadness, anger, etc.). Mood describes a child's overall disposition, or the negative and positive feelings a child typically displays. Rhythmicity, also referred to as regularity, is the degree of predictability of a child's behavior. Last, threshold to responsiveness is the level of stimulation needed to

From these dimensions, Thomas and Chess found that approximately 60% of children could be classified as one of three types (i.e., easy, difficult, or slow to warm). Children categorized as "easy" were described as having a more positive mood, higher levels of regulation, lower intensity in reaction to stimuli, and more openness in approach to unknown people, places, and situations. In contrast, children categorized as "difficult" were described as having a high level of reactivity, tending to withdraw from new people, places, and situations, and slowly adapting to changes or transitions. Children categorized as "slow to warm" were described as displaying lower levels of activity as well as responding to new situations with a lower level of intensity than their counter parts. Like those in the "difficult" category, children in the "slow to warm" group also tended to withdraw from new people, places, and situations and adapt slowly to changes or transitions [19]. Thomas and Chess [14] stressed that no temperament type was better or worse than another, but that positive adjustment was predicated on the "goodness-of-fit" between the child's temperament and the environment. For instance, a "difficult" child is more likely to require a supportive environment with sensitive and responsive parents and teachers, whereas an "easy" child may thrive in various contexts because they do not demand as much attention and support from parents and teachers [6]. It is important to note that difficult temperament qualities in children vary

Although Thomas and Chess laid the foundation for modern temperament research, most researchers today recognize the framework of Rothbart and colleagues that link biological and environmental factors of temperament. Rothbart and Derryberry [11] define temperament as "constitutionally based individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, influenced over time by genes, maturation, and experience", with constitutional referring to the biological determinates of temperament. Rothbart and colleagues conceptualize temperament as resulting from the interplay of reactive and regulatory temperament dimensions, with an emphasis on the role of regulation in the development and display of temperament across age [5, 21]. These regulatory processes begin to develop during early preschool with the greatest development happening during preschool and kindergarten. From this point forward, regulation is rather stable through the

Current temperament research recognizes that temperament is relatively stable; individual differences in temperament appear at birth and have strong biological bases. For example, researchers have found the amygdala to be associated with fearfulness [22]; activation of the amygdala increases when there is perceived threat [23]. The amygdala has also been linked to the prefrontal cortex region of the brain that is associated with state and trait anxiety [24], executive functioning, and attentional systems [25]. These studies suggest a neurobiological link to temperament. In addition, studies have shown a genetic link to temperament traits such as activity level, attention and persistence, impulsivity, negative emotionality, shyness, and effortful control [26]. However, temperament is not influenced by biology alone – it is also shaped by the environment [27]. Approximately 20–60% of observed variation in temperament is due to genetic factors and the remaining variance, 40–80%,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96270*

elicit a child's reaction [17, 18].

across cultures [20].

lifespan [5, 6].

#### *Temperament in the Early Elementary Classroom: Implications for Practice DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.96270*

*Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World*

specifically the classroom [6, 7].

mental health.

the lifespan [7].

relationship between how children both receive and affect their environments,

Social emotional competence, which includes temperament awareness and self-regulation development, is important for young children to process and positively interact with various social stimuli [1]. Environmental stimuli may include stressors or trauma that directly or indirectly influence an individual [8]. A 2007 study [8] suggests that at least five million children in the United States "experience some extreme traumatic event". These traumatic experiences include natural disasters as well as human-caused social problems [8]. A 2016 study [9] found that 48% of children in their sample were influenced by some form of violence, and therefore victimization, within the previous school year. In addition to these existing traumas, the current years have brought forth novel national and global stressors. Cornonavirus-19 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic that has potentially affected every household and every school; although limited research has been published about the COVID-19 effects on young children, it can be hypothesized that this natural disaster will greatly increase child trauma and stress [10]. Racial injustice and economic declines are also global phenomena about which society has grown more aware due to COVID-19. Thus, early social competence development is needed for children to avoid negative consequences such as post-traumatic stress disorder [1, 8]. This chapter aims to provide useful information about child temperament as well as an intervention that provides important social–emotional development to young children promoting long-term positive development and

Temperament refers to individual genetic and personality differences in disposition that represent emotional reactivity and self-regulation [5, 7, 11, 12]. Emotional

reactivity is conceptualized as an individual's natural and initial response to environmental stimuli and is measured in terms of the duration and intensity of the response [5, 12, 13]. Self-regulation refers to the ability to adapt or control one's "temperamental reactivity" [13]. That is, temperamental regulation is the ability to modulate emotional and behavioral reactions to the environment [5, 12]. In this way, reactivity and regulation are synergistic; regulation *modulates* an individual's reactivity. Temperament reflects differences in biology, emotion, and behavior; although temperament adaptability develops overtime, essential aspects of an individual's temperament remain and continue to characterize that person across

Temperament has been studied since the 1970's and remains relevant in today's classrooms. Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess [14] launched the New York Longitudinal Study—a multiple dimension examination of temperament in infants. This set the foundation for contemporary research on temperament [14]. Inspired by observing their own children, Thomas and Chess conducted parent interviews regarding their infants' behavior in various contexts and in-depth observations of infants aged 3–6 months [15]. Noting individual differences in the infants' primary reaction patterns, they observed nine temperament dimensions: activity level, adaptability, approach-withdrawal, attention span/task persistence, distractibility, intensity, mood, rhythmicity, and threshold to responsiveness [15]. Activity refers to the level of motor activity. Adaptability is defined by how easily a child adapts to changes or transitions in the environment, whereas approachwithdrawal is how a child responds to new stimuli [16]. Attention span or task persistence is how long a child sticks with an activity when difficulties arise, as

**2. Historical context of temperament research**

**254**

opposed to distractibility, which is the extent to which a child may be distracted by a stimulus and change behavior. Intensity is the level of energy a child displays in responses (i.e., happiness, sadness, anger, etc.). Mood describes a child's overall disposition, or the negative and positive feelings a child typically displays. Rhythmicity, also referred to as regularity, is the degree of predictability of a child's behavior. Last, threshold to responsiveness is the level of stimulation needed to elicit a child's reaction [17, 18].

From these dimensions, Thomas and Chess found that approximately 60% of children could be classified as one of three types (i.e., easy, difficult, or slow to warm). Children categorized as "easy" were described as having a more positive mood, higher levels of regulation, lower intensity in reaction to stimuli, and more openness in approach to unknown people, places, and situations. In contrast, children categorized as "difficult" were described as having a high level of reactivity, tending to withdraw from new people, places, and situations, and slowly adapting to changes or transitions. Children categorized as "slow to warm" were described as displaying lower levels of activity as well as responding to new situations with a lower level of intensity than their counter parts. Like those in the "difficult" category, children in the "slow to warm" group also tended to withdraw from new people, places, and situations and adapt slowly to changes or transitions [19]. Thomas and Chess [14] stressed that no temperament type was better or worse than another, but that positive adjustment was predicated on the "goodness-of-fit" between the child's temperament and the environment. For instance, a "difficult" child is more likely to require a supportive environment with sensitive and responsive parents and teachers, whereas an "easy" child may thrive in various contexts because they do not demand as much attention and support from parents and teachers [6]. It is important to note that difficult temperament qualities in children vary across cultures [20].

Although Thomas and Chess laid the foundation for modern temperament research, most researchers today recognize the framework of Rothbart and colleagues that link biological and environmental factors of temperament. Rothbart and Derryberry [11] define temperament as "constitutionally based individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, influenced over time by genes, maturation, and experience", with constitutional referring to the biological determinates of temperament. Rothbart and colleagues conceptualize temperament as resulting from the interplay of reactive and regulatory temperament dimensions, with an emphasis on the role of regulation in the development and display of temperament across age [5, 21]. These regulatory processes begin to develop during early preschool with the greatest development happening during preschool and kindergarten. From this point forward, regulation is rather stable through the lifespan [5, 6].

Current temperament research recognizes that temperament is relatively stable; individual differences in temperament appear at birth and have strong biological bases. For example, researchers have found the amygdala to be associated with fearfulness [22]; activation of the amygdala increases when there is perceived threat [23]. The amygdala has also been linked to the prefrontal cortex region of the brain that is associated with state and trait anxiety [24], executive functioning, and attentional systems [25]. These studies suggest a neurobiological link to temperament. In addition, studies have shown a genetic link to temperament traits such as activity level, attention and persistence, impulsivity, negative emotionality, shyness, and effortful control [26]. However, temperament is not influenced by biology alone – it is also shaped by the environment [27]. Approximately 20–60% of observed variation in temperament is due to genetic factors and the remaining variance, 40–80%, is due to environmental influences [26].
