Preface

This book explores different perspectives on dyslexia. We live in an ableist society where the ability to read and write is viewed as a sign of intelligence. However, we view dyslexia as a specific learning difference that is unrelated to intelligence. We also view dyslexia as a gift rather than as a difficulty. Many individuals with dyslexia are creative and skilled in lateral thinking. They are often verbally articulate and proficient in verbal reasoning.

We argue that the early identification of dyslexia is crucial so that children are not disadvantaged academically. The ability to read and write is critical to academic success. Reading is essential because it unlocks the door to the rest of the school curriculum. The gradual shift away from *learning to read* to *reading to learn* demonstrates the important role that reading plays in enabling children to access knowledge across the curriculum. Reading and writing are also critical skills that individuals need throughout their lives. We know that literacy skills can influence life chances. We only need to look at the extent of illiteracy in prisons and the wider criminal justice system to understand the relationship between reading and writing and long-term outcomes. However, skills in literacy should never be seen as an indicator of a person's intelligence, and it is for this reason that we have chosen to emphasise our preference that dyslexia should be viewed as a learning difference rather than a learning difficulty.

In our own research in this field, we have highlighted an association between dyslexia and self-esteem. Our data demonstrate that the experiences associated with having dyslexia can have a detrimental effect on a person's sense of self. We have also explored the experiences of dyslexic trainee teachers. Our data demonstrate the disconnect between pre-service teachers' experiences in university contexts and those in school contexts. In line with other researchers, we found that although dyslexic pre-service teachers often experience high levels of support within universities, this is often not matched by the level of support that they receive in schools. We found far too many examples of discrimination and prejudice, thus illustrating the ableist nature of the teaching profession. At the same time, we found that dyslexic pre-school teachers have numerous strengths. They are creative, empathetic and skilled in automatically adapting tasks to meet the needs of students with learning difficulties. Many were able to automatically break down tasks into smaller steps to enable students to achieve learning outcomes. It is these strengths that enable teachers with dyslexia to thrive in the teaching profession, and it is for these reasons that we emphasise dyslexia as a learning difference rather than a disability.

We recognize that the fundamental areas that dyslexics find more challenging lie in the areas of language processing and, even more specifically, phonological processing. We argue that many dyslexic children will benefit from a rich multi-sensory phonics programme that provides them with repeated opportunities to *overlearn* the skills of grapheme-phoneme correspondence, blending, segmenting and phoneme manipulation (including phoneme addition, deletion and substitution). We argue that although many dyslexics will eventually develop the skill of automaticity in word recognition, for many, the skills of spelling and transcription will remain

lifelong challenges. Technological adaptations can support the writing process in classrooms and schools, and colleges and universities should invest in evidencebased technological adaptations that remove barriers to learning.

We emphasise the need for teachers to use a variety of approaches to enable students to record their learning in lessons and to explore the use of visual approaches, including *mind mapping* and *concept mapping*.

We hope you enjoy reading this book. There is no reason why students with dyslexia cannot thrive within educational environments. They should be viewed through a capability model rather than through a deficit lens.

> **Jonathan Glazzard and Samuel Stones**  Leeds Beckett University, United Kingdom

> > **1**

**Chapter 1**

*Ruth Falzon*

**1. Introduction**

Thriving Dyslexia.

**Abstract**

Dyslexia and Academic Life

Difficulties or Learning Disabilities in research and national data.

Dyslexia, Learning Disabilities, specific learning difficulties

**Keywords:** academic success, access to academic learning, formal assessment,

In April 2014 [1] Maltese educational psychologist Mr Juan Camilleri and I tabled a petition with the Parliament of Malta. We recommended the use of alternative access to and production of literacy for national academic examinations and throughout education. At the time, the Rector of the University of Malta (UM) refused to accept the petition, which is why we then tabled it with the Parliament of Malta. Since then, significant changes at the UM and the Ministry for Education and Employment indicate that Malta has started to embrace the rationale of this petition [2]. Notwithstanding, I think that there is still long way to go both locally and globally, particularly with reference to attitudes within the academic world. In spite of literature affirming that the ability to read and intelligence are not correlated [3, 4], people with dyslexia still experience being looked down upon by educators and fellow students due to their challenges with literacy (e.g., [5–7]). This chapter will discuss experiences of university students with dyslexia and suggest possible strategies that can be considered, also in the context of the present health situation. This chapter embraces Kannangara's [8] model From Languishing to

To start, I will share the experience of an academic I heard speak during an international conference I attended in 2015. She used to work in a University in Europe. She had been working at this university for over 25 years and had always received positive feedback and evaluation reports about her lecturing, research,

This chapter intends to discuss the experiences of university students with dyslexia and academic learning and assessment. It intends to challenge the traditional access to and production of examinations and to separate the ability to retrieve and produce verbal visual print from academic learning and performance in order to propose a model where educational systems join the fourth revolution. The intention is to address the brain drain that communities experience when students with Dyslexia are not able to show what they really know, due to possibly archaic access to and production of academic learning and assessment. The use of technology and independent access to printed material will also be discussed. The framework of this chapter is the Kannangara model of dyslexia: from Languishing to Thriving with Dyslexia. When reading this chapter, one also needs to remember that, whilst I refer to dyslexia, this profile more often than not co-occurs with other learning challenges and is often grouped with populations of Specific Learning

## **Chapter 1** Dyslexia and Academic Life

*Ruth Falzon*

## **Abstract**

This chapter intends to discuss the experiences of university students with dyslexia and academic learning and assessment. It intends to challenge the traditional access to and production of examinations and to separate the ability to retrieve and produce verbal visual print from academic learning and performance in order to propose a model where educational systems join the fourth revolution. The intention is to address the brain drain that communities experience when students with Dyslexia are not able to show what they really know, due to possibly archaic access to and production of academic learning and assessment. The use of technology and independent access to printed material will also be discussed. The framework of this chapter is the Kannangara model of dyslexia: from Languishing to Thriving with Dyslexia. When reading this chapter, one also needs to remember that, whilst I refer to dyslexia, this profile more often than not co-occurs with other learning challenges and is often grouped with populations of Specific Learning Difficulties or Learning Disabilities in research and national data.

**Keywords:** academic success, access to academic learning, formal assessment, Dyslexia, Learning Disabilities, specific learning difficulties

### **1. Introduction**

In April 2014 [1] Maltese educational psychologist Mr Juan Camilleri and I tabled a petition with the Parliament of Malta. We recommended the use of alternative access to and production of literacy for national academic examinations and throughout education. At the time, the Rector of the University of Malta (UM) refused to accept the petition, which is why we then tabled it with the Parliament of Malta. Since then, significant changes at the UM and the Ministry for Education and Employment indicate that Malta has started to embrace the rationale of this petition [2]. Notwithstanding, I think that there is still long way to go both locally and globally, particularly with reference to attitudes within the academic world. In spite of literature affirming that the ability to read and intelligence are not correlated [3, 4], people with dyslexia still experience being looked down upon by educators and fellow students due to their challenges with literacy (e.g., [5–7]). This chapter will discuss experiences of university students with dyslexia and suggest possible strategies that can be considered, also in the context of the present health situation. This chapter embraces Kannangara's [8] model From Languishing to Thriving Dyslexia.

To start, I will share the experience of an academic I heard speak during an international conference I attended in 2015. She used to work in a University in Europe. She had been working at this university for over 25 years and had always received positive feedback and evaluation reports about her lecturing, research,

administration, co-ordination and research. She had never felt the need to disclose her profile of dyslexia. However, one day she mentioned her profile en passant during a meeting with University academic and administration. From that day on, the university started asking her to recheck her work, her work started to be supervised; and she was given the message that the university had concerns about her profile. The situation was so stressful for her that it became untenable and she actually had to leave her place of work. It seems that, after 25 years of sterling service to her university, the main focus became her profile rather than her actual sterling output and track record.

### **2. Personal worldview on literacy, dyslexia definition and intervention**

At the outset, I would like to declare that one cannot diminish the extreme importance of reading and spelling skills and techniques. Globalisation is placing new demands on the kinds of literacies we need both in our work and in the daily demands of everyday life. A good quality basic education equips one with literacy skills for life and further learning. In most developed and developing countries, literacy skills are fundamental to daily living and affect the social, political, civic, economic and personal lives of citizens, directly affecting wellbeing [8]. Where literacy still does not have a fundamental function, oppression and poverty prevail [9–11]. Johnson and Kress [12] noted that "globalization is frequently thought about in economic terms alone, but there is equally a cultural globalization which is no less, maybe even more, potent in its shaping to the ways in which we communicate and represent meaning" (p. 5).

Literacy is regarded as a means to address poverty and oppression (e.g., [9, 13–15]). The post-war era has seen literacy on nations' educational, economic and political agendas (e.g., [15–17]). The United Nations' Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) perceives literacy as a human right, a tool of personal empowerment, a means for social and human development, and at the heart of basic education for all [15]. The UNESCO Education for All (EFA) committee noted that eradicating poverty, reducing child mortality, addressing population growth, achieving gender equality and ensuring sustainable development, peace, democracy and empowerment are some of the good reasons why literacy is at EFA's core [15]. Indeed, since its foundation in 1946, UNESCO has been at the forefront of global literacy efforts and is dedicated to keeping literacy high on national, regional and international agendas [18].

### **2.1 Literacy?**

Hirsch [19] proposed that failing to teach children what they must learn in order to be able to cope with further learning in school is the greatest form of injustice in education which can be prevented. What I challenge is what is regarded as a must to learn and how one defines literacy.

The literature is clear. Access to the printed text paves the way for learning and economic growth and justifies ensuring that young learners learn to read as early and as expediently as possible (e.g., [9, 20, 21]). The speed and effectiveness of this early literacy learning process affects success in learning and has a Matthew Effect (e.g., [22–24]). However, education needs to include those for whom learning to read is not so easy. Pedagogies need to embrace this and must use teaching strategies which include media other than the printed text to access learning, particularly in a context where technology is the reality of the day.

There is consensus that the ultimate purpose of reading printed text is to understand its meaning [25]. Research indicates that slow and effortful word-decoding/

**3**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

*2.1.1 Reading comprehension*

to more complexities.

to extract and construct new meaning.

*2.1.2 Beyond traditional literacy*

factors [46].

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

examinations are not compromised" ([1], p. 1).

learning without the use of the verbal visual [32, 33].

needs to be used as a compensatory strategy and a tool [39].

word-recognition abilities limit reading comprehension abilities (e.g., [4, 26, 27]) and affect academic success [28], with success depending on the ability to read and write [29]. I simply want my dream to become a reality for all: "for whom reading and writing is not such an easy task or choice, alternatives for access to medium and expression of knowledge should be available so long as the aims and objectives of

Children and young people with dyslexia and other challenges are failing their national examinations due to access to medium and choice of medium of expression [30]. This is not only disheartening for the individual, but also a brain drain on communities, impacting the economy and wellbeing of families, communities and countries [31]. Education still needs to understand the need to teach all our children how to read and write, whilst at the same time addressing the need of access to

Literature clearly evidences the negative effects challenges with literacy have on the wellbeing of persons with dyslexia (e.g. [34–37]). Educational systems and educators must avoid unnecessary suffering by challenging their definition of learning and performance in examinations [30, 38]. Inasmuch as literacy must be given priority in education, for those with neurological challenges to access it, technology

Reading comprehension is the ability to actively understand ideas and integrate them with prior knowledge to create efficient memory structures [28]. Since it is one of the most complex human activities, any reading theory must address underlying cognitive and linguistic processes involved in comprehension [40]. According to the Single View of Reading (SVR) model, linguistic comprehension contributes to reading comprehension [40] as does accurate and efficient word decoding/ recognition [26]. Florit and Cain's [41] meta-analysis concluded that linguistic comprehension is a strong predictor of reading comprehension in transparent orthographies [e.g., Finnish) whilst word decoding skills were more influential in deep orthographies [e.g., English). Other researchers oppose this model, referring

For example, the Direct and Indirect Effects of Text Comprehension Model refers to relational pathway between lower- and higher-level skills involved in reading comprehension [42]. Lower-level skills include working memory, attention, vocabulary and grammatical knowledge, oral language [42] which are necessary to address higher-level skills such as inferences, perspective taking, comprehension monitoring, verbal working memory, and knowledge on text structures (e.g., [43–45]). Motivation, interest and purpose are then additional contributing

My reflection on these two models' sets of skills needed for reading comprehension is that for all the skills required, effective and fluent word recognition are skills which can be replaced by technology, whilst the other skills can still be developed and addressed so that readers interact and involve themselves with written language

The theory of this chapter is that, wherever possible and so long as the academic learning and assessment objectives are retained, one should be allowed to choose whether, in light of their profile of abilities, skills and challenges, they would prefer to learn, study, access knowledge, develop skills and sit for their examinations

### *Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

sterling output and track record.

international agendas [18].

learn and how one defines literacy.

context where technology is the reality of the day.

**2.1 Literacy?**

administration, co-ordination and research. She had never felt the need to disclose her profile of dyslexia. However, one day she mentioned her profile en passant during a meeting with University academic and administration. From that day on, the university started asking her to recheck her work, her work started to be supervised; and she was given the message that the university had concerns about her profile. The situation was so stressful for her that it became untenable and she actually had to leave her place of work. It seems that, after 25 years of sterling service to her university, the main focus became her profile rather than her actual

**2. Personal worldview on literacy, dyslexia definition and intervention**

tance of reading and spelling skills and techniques. Globalisation is placing new demands on the kinds of literacies we need both in our work and in the daily demands of everyday life. A good quality basic education equips one with literacy skills for life and further learning. In most developed and developing countries, literacy skills are fundamental to daily living and affect the social, political, civic, economic and personal lives of citizens, directly affecting wellbeing [8]. Where literacy still does not have a fundamental function, oppression and poverty prevail [9–11]. Johnson and Kress [12] noted that "globalization is frequently thought about in economic terms alone, but there is equally a cultural globalization which is no less, maybe even more, potent in its

shaping to the ways in which we communicate and represent meaning" (p. 5).

The post-war era has seen literacy on nations' educational, economic and political agendas (e.g., [15–17]). The United Nations' Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) perceives literacy as a human right, a tool of personal empowerment, a means for social and human development, and at the heart of basic education for all [15]. The UNESCO Education for All (EFA) committee noted that eradicating poverty, reducing child mortality, addressing population growth, achieving gender equality and ensuring sustainable development, peace, democracy and empowerment are some of the good reasons why literacy is at EFA's core [15]. Indeed, since its foundation in 1946, UNESCO has been at the forefront of global literacy efforts and is dedicated to keeping literacy high on national, regional and

Literacy is regarded as a means to address poverty and oppression (e.g., [9, 13–15]).

Hirsch [19] proposed that failing to teach children what they must learn in order to be able to cope with further learning in school is the greatest form of injustice in education which can be prevented. What I challenge is what is regarded as a must to

The literature is clear. Access to the printed text paves the way for learning and economic growth and justifies ensuring that young learners learn to read as early and as expediently as possible (e.g., [9, 20, 21]). The speed and effectiveness of this early literacy learning process affects success in learning and has a Matthew Effect (e.g., [22–24]). However, education needs to include those for whom learning to read is not so easy. Pedagogies need to embrace this and must use teaching strategies which include media other than the printed text to access learning, particularly in a

There is consensus that the ultimate purpose of reading printed text is to understand its meaning [25]. Research indicates that slow and effortful word-decoding/

At the outset, I would like to declare that one cannot diminish the extreme impor-

**2**

word-recognition abilities limit reading comprehension abilities (e.g., [4, 26, 27]) and affect academic success [28], with success depending on the ability to read and write [29]. I simply want my dream to become a reality for all: "for whom reading and writing is not such an easy task or choice, alternatives for access to medium and expression of knowledge should be available so long as the aims and objectives of examinations are not compromised" ([1], p. 1).

Children and young people with dyslexia and other challenges are failing their national examinations due to access to medium and choice of medium of expression [30]. This is not only disheartening for the individual, but also a brain drain on communities, impacting the economy and wellbeing of families, communities and countries [31]. Education still needs to understand the need to teach all our children how to read and write, whilst at the same time addressing the need of access to learning without the use of the verbal visual [32, 33].

Literature clearly evidences the negative effects challenges with literacy have on the wellbeing of persons with dyslexia (e.g. [34–37]). Educational systems and educators must avoid unnecessary suffering by challenging their definition of learning and performance in examinations [30, 38]. Inasmuch as literacy must be given priority in education, for those with neurological challenges to access it, technology needs to be used as a compensatory strategy and a tool [39].

### *2.1.1 Reading comprehension*

Reading comprehension is the ability to actively understand ideas and integrate them with prior knowledge to create efficient memory structures [28]. Since it is one of the most complex human activities, any reading theory must address underlying cognitive and linguistic processes involved in comprehension [40]. According to the Single View of Reading (SVR) model, linguistic comprehension contributes to reading comprehension [40] as does accurate and efficient word decoding/ recognition [26]. Florit and Cain's [41] meta-analysis concluded that linguistic comprehension is a strong predictor of reading comprehension in transparent orthographies [e.g., Finnish) whilst word decoding skills were more influential in deep orthographies [e.g., English). Other researchers oppose this model, referring to more complexities.

For example, the Direct and Indirect Effects of Text Comprehension Model refers to relational pathway between lower- and higher-level skills involved in reading comprehension [42]. Lower-level skills include working memory, attention, vocabulary and grammatical knowledge, oral language [42] which are necessary to address higher-level skills such as inferences, perspective taking, comprehension monitoring, verbal working memory, and knowledge on text structures (e.g., [43–45]). Motivation, interest and purpose are then additional contributing factors [46].

My reflection on these two models' sets of skills needed for reading comprehension is that for all the skills required, effective and fluent word recognition are skills which can be replaced by technology, whilst the other skills can still be developed and addressed so that readers interact and involve themselves with written language to extract and construct new meaning.

### *2.1.2 Beyond traditional literacy*

The theory of this chapter is that, wherever possible and so long as the academic learning and assessment objectives are retained, one should be allowed to choose whether, in light of their profile of abilities, skills and challenges, they would prefer to learn, study, access knowledge, develop skills and sit for their examinations

orally, using the voice to produce printed material for examiners to read, in handwritten format or using the word processor/tablet. This should be regarded as a choice for all, rather than an examination access arrangement; in the same way that one chooses to sit for examinations using their prescriptive glasses or writing with blue or black pens.

Let us take the subject of History as an example. The aims and objectives of the History curricula and syllabi, as well as its content, never indicate that reading and writing per se are required. Why is it then such an issue and such a waste of human and financial resources for our system and for families to conclude whether candidates should sit for History orally, in typewritten format or handwritten format? One may query: but what about language examination? In my opinion, the same rationale can apply as the knowledge of knowing a language and being able to produce material for others to read is different from the ability to read and spell. Therefore, unless the examination objective is specifically the skills of decoding or encoding or the skill of producing written material through handwriting, the same rationale applies.

### *2.1.3 Writing (??) an essay*

In dictionaries, an essay is usually defined as a "short literary composition on a particular theme or subject, usually in prose and generally analytic, speculative, or interpretative" ([47], para.1). No definition on the word essay includes that this task must have been written, typed, swiped or dictated. As such, it is perhaps about time that the ability to spin a yarn or present a thesis for others to read in another space and time is differentiated from the ability to spell, particularly in the context of modern technology. Essays can be produced using two (swiping), three (handwriting), ten (typing) fingers or no (voice-activated technology) fingers. This is not to diminish the importance of spelling, but simply to do justice to competencies required to produce essays. One would need a good speller to proofread documents. This is different from the ability to transform thoughts, creativity, theories, arguments and ideas into readable linguistic communication for others to access in another time and space. Does one ever question or reflect upon the spelling ability of great authors? Is the spelling of authors ever criticised or addressed when books/ articles/ scientific journals are published?

### *2.1.4 Technological support to literacy learning and proficiency*

Research findings consistently conclude that early literacy learning affects success in learning (e.g. [22, 23, 48]). It is therefore of utmost importance that early education also includes the use of technology to access and present print for those struggling with literacy (e.g., [49–51]) as pupils are learning to break the code to literacy. Standard computers themselves already incorporate adaptations to address all aspects of literacy [52]. Free downloadable material (e.g., [53–55]) allows one to add applications. The market also has commercial affordable apparata which not only provide text-to-speech and speech-to-text but also present organisation features for general (e.g., [56–58]) or examination use [59, 60].

### **2.2 Dyslexia definition and intervention**

Any research in this area is complicated by difficulties defining dyslexia. Most agree that dyslexia involves reading ability below age- and IQ-matched peers, which is not attributable to poor visual or auditory acuity or inadequate instruction; and where intellect is not affected by specific challenges attributed to this profile

**5**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

intervention (e.g., [66–68]).

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

[70]. Kale [69] referred to Yule's (1976) conclusion that:

have a profile of dyslexia or not (e.g., [9, 20, 71]).

**3. Academic self-concept and academic success**

(e.g., [4, 61, 62]). Research findings, mostly quantitative, seem to indicate that dyslexia can be categorised into five challenged areas of brain function: phonological, visual, memory, semantic and kinaesthetic (e.g. [4, 61, 63]), where effects continue throughout lifetimes (e.g., [62, 64, 65]). However, there is still considerable debate in education and neuroscience literature regarding underlying causes, age distribution, diagnosis, identification, appropriate assessment methods and

The Guardian [69] lately presented a long article on whether dyslexia actually exists. Citing challenging literature that states that distinguishing between dyslexia and other reading difficulties results in children not being eligible for intervention

*The era of applying the label 'dyslexic' is rapidly drawing to a close. The label has served its function in drawing attention to children who have great difficulty in mastering the arts of reading, writing and spelling but its continued use invokes emotions* 

Whilst I agree that (1) terminology and diagnostic conclusions should not deter access to intervention; (2) one should focus on behaviour, skills and abilities rather than labelling; (3) Intervention techniques designed for the dyslexia population are inclusive strategies and beneficial for all, I disagree with Yale. Ample research findings evidence this established neurological profile which, more often than not, co-occurs with other neurological profiles [71]. Apart from educational and psychological research on dyslexia, neuroscience research is leading to a deeper understanding of the identification, diagnosis and management of dyslexia. Such hard evidence provides for strong and persuasive lobbying for change [3, 4].

Snowling et al. [4] acknowledged challenges with co-occurrence and cut-offs and concluded that "Optimal outcomes for these children require us to embrace the dimensional nature of dyslexia and its associated complexities; to fail to do so is negligent and arguably morally indefensible" (p. 508). Lastly, knowledge about dyslexia may benefit all those who present challenges learning to read, whether they

My views regarding learning and examination access arrangement as a choicefor-all rather than a concession for some, clearly presents that my framework and worldview is framed within principles of inclusion [72], diversity [73, 74] and otherness [75, 76]. This echoes Furedi's [77] resistance to the use of a diagnosis disability and pathologisation to justify allowances and additional support. Further, I frame dyslexia within Kannangara's [8] (2015) From Languishing to Thriving Dyslexia model, which lobbies for support, understanding and resilience.

Zeleke's [78] and Burden's [35] meta-analyses concluded that academic selfesteem and self-concept (ASC) are founded early and tend to be very stable and rather unaffected by later, more successful experiences. This then affects choices for further education, as is represented by data available regarding university students and research findings. Burden [35] reflected that values regarding, "how competent we think we are, …how much in control of the outcomes we consider ourselves to be…[how] we react to disappointment and failure, the strategies that we have…

Therefore, it can be assumed that studies available on dyslexic university students would involve a particular dyslexic population which would have enough required

effort we are prepared to invest in order to succeed,"(p. 20) affect ASC.

*which often prevent rational discussion and scientific investigation. (p. 166)*

### *Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

with blue or black pens.

rationale applies.

*2.1.3 Writing (??) an essay*

articles/ scientific journals are published?

**2.2 Dyslexia definition and intervention**

*2.1.4 Technological support to literacy learning and proficiency*

features for general (e.g., [56–58]) or examination use [59, 60].

orally, using the voice to produce printed material for examiners to read, in

handwritten format or using the word processor/tablet. This should be regarded as a choice for all, rather than an examination access arrangement; in the same way that one chooses to sit for examinations using their prescriptive glasses or writing

Let us take the subject of History as an example. The aims and objectives of the History curricula and syllabi, as well as its content, never indicate that reading and writing per se are required. Why is it then such an issue and such a waste of human and financial resources for our system and for families to conclude whether candidates should sit for History orally, in typewritten format or handwritten format? One may query: but what about language examination? In my opinion, the same rationale can apply as the knowledge of knowing a language and being able to produce material for others to read is different from the ability to read and spell. Therefore, unless the examination objective is specifically the skills of decoding or encoding or the skill of producing written material through handwriting, the same

In dictionaries, an essay is usually defined as a "short literary composition on a particular theme or subject, usually in prose and generally analytic, speculative, or interpretative" ([47], para.1). No definition on the word essay includes that this task must have been written, typed, swiped or dictated. As such, it is perhaps about time that the ability to spin a yarn or present a thesis for others to read in another space and time is differentiated from the ability to spell, particularly in the context of modern technology. Essays can be produced using two (swiping), three (handwriting), ten (typing) fingers or no (voice-activated technology) fingers. This is not to diminish the importance of spelling, but simply to do justice to competencies required to produce essays. One would need a good speller to proofread documents. This is different from the ability to transform thoughts, creativity, theories, arguments and ideas into readable linguistic communication for others to access in another time and space. Does one ever question or reflect upon the spelling ability of great authors? Is the spelling of authors ever criticised or addressed when books/

Research findings consistently conclude that early literacy learning affects success in learning (e.g. [22, 23, 48]). It is therefore of utmost importance that early education also includes the use of technology to access and present print for those struggling with literacy (e.g., [49–51]) as pupils are learning to break the code to literacy. Standard computers themselves already incorporate adaptations to address all aspects of literacy [52]. Free downloadable material (e.g., [53–55]) allows one to add applications. The market also has commercial affordable apparata which not only provide text-to-speech and speech-to-text but also present organisation

Any research in this area is complicated by difficulties defining dyslexia. Most agree that dyslexia involves reading ability below age- and IQ-matched peers, which is not attributable to poor visual or auditory acuity or inadequate instruction; and where intellect is not affected by specific challenges attributed to this profile

**4**

(e.g., [4, 61, 62]). Research findings, mostly quantitative, seem to indicate that dyslexia can be categorised into five challenged areas of brain function: phonological, visual, memory, semantic and kinaesthetic (e.g. [4, 61, 63]), where effects continue throughout lifetimes (e.g., [62, 64, 65]). However, there is still considerable debate in education and neuroscience literature regarding underlying causes, age distribution, diagnosis, identification, appropriate assessment methods and intervention (e.g., [66–68]).

The Guardian [69] lately presented a long article on whether dyslexia actually exists. Citing challenging literature that states that distinguishing between dyslexia and other reading difficulties results in children not being eligible for intervention [70]. Kale [69] referred to Yule's (1976) conclusion that:

*The era of applying the label 'dyslexic' is rapidly drawing to a close. The label has served its function in drawing attention to children who have great difficulty in mastering the arts of reading, writing and spelling but its continued use invokes emotions which often prevent rational discussion and scientific investigation. (p. 166)*

Whilst I agree that (1) terminology and diagnostic conclusions should not deter access to intervention; (2) one should focus on behaviour, skills and abilities rather than labelling; (3) Intervention techniques designed for the dyslexia population are inclusive strategies and beneficial for all, I disagree with Yale. Ample research findings evidence this established neurological profile which, more often than not, co-occurs with other neurological profiles [71]. Apart from educational and psychological research on dyslexia, neuroscience research is leading to a deeper understanding of the identification, diagnosis and management of dyslexia. Such hard evidence provides for strong and persuasive lobbying for change [3, 4].

Snowling et al. [4] acknowledged challenges with co-occurrence and cut-offs and concluded that "Optimal outcomes for these children require us to embrace the dimensional nature of dyslexia and its associated complexities; to fail to do so is negligent and arguably morally indefensible" (p. 508). Lastly, knowledge about dyslexia may benefit all those who present challenges learning to read, whether they have a profile of dyslexia or not (e.g., [9, 20, 71]).

My views regarding learning and examination access arrangement as a choicefor-all rather than a concession for some, clearly presents that my framework and worldview is framed within principles of inclusion [72], diversity [73, 74] and otherness [75, 76]. This echoes Furedi's [77] resistance to the use of a diagnosis disability and pathologisation to justify allowances and additional support. Further, I frame dyslexia within Kannangara's [8] (2015) From Languishing to Thriving Dyslexia model, which lobbies for support, understanding and resilience.

### **3. Academic self-concept and academic success**

Zeleke's [78] and Burden's [35] meta-analyses concluded that academic selfesteem and self-concept (ASC) are founded early and tend to be very stable and rather unaffected by later, more successful experiences. This then affects choices for further education, as is represented by data available regarding university students and research findings. Burden [35] reflected that values regarding, "how competent we think we are, …how much in control of the outcomes we consider ourselves to be…[how] we react to disappointment and failure, the strategies that we have… effort we are prepared to invest in order to succeed,"(p. 20) affect ASC.

Therefore, it can be assumed that studies available on dyslexic university students would involve a particular dyslexic population which would have enough required

abilities and skills to have enabled them to build ASC allowing them to remain resilient and motivated to learn and who, perhaps, were in supportive home environments and school systems [8, 30]. The question that lingers is: what brain drain are our communities experiencing because school environments lead students to low ASC?

Research findings consistently suggest that teachers and lecturers fail to understand the complexities related to dyslexia and other learning challenges (e.g., [79–81]). They tend to perceive dyslexia as similar to other learning difficulties [82] and are less likely to account for students' abilities [81]. Lack of understanding and adequate appropriate support may lead to students not completing their studies or graduating with inferior degree classifications than deserved. Caskey's [83] Australian research identified that adult dyslexics tend to live in a "dual world, one that is related to the Medical versus Social Model of Disability. Despite the research on 'ableism' …adult students diagnosed with dyslexia were navigating through the system barriers searching for support, between the inclusion and exclusion zones" (p. 264). However, when "advocate, support and services were provided…in the form of advocacy, success can occur" ([83], p. 266).

Kannangara [8] concluded that experiences can present a model where one can either languish or thrive with a profile of dyslexia. She reported that, a thriving dyslexic presents positive acceptance towards challenges, embraces difficulties, uses signature strengths to address obstacles, learns from criticisms, perseveres, withstands, and finds alternative approaches to address failures. Unfortunately, a 2019 report [84] by the British Dyslexia Association (BDA) evidenced that parents reported the following effects of a profile of dyslexia on their children: 82% try to hide their struggles; 88% experience poor self-esteem, 84% suffer from anxiety; 52% try to avoid school; 78% feel embarrassed; 48% had been bullied, 95% experience frustration, 58% avoid discussing their dyslexia, and 82% try to hide their difficulties relating to dyslexia.

BDA [84] concluded that "children and young people are uncomfortable, and experience negative emotions linked to their dyslexia …our data may demonstrate an association between dyslexia and mental health difficulties" (p. 19).

Studies exploring school experiences through interviews offer an overall experience of strong, negative emotions (e.g., [34, 85, 86]). Studies exploring how dyslexic people make sense of their positive and negative emotions in relation to school experiences have also presented positive experience (e.g., [8, 87, 88]). One needs to, however, take into consideration that some of the participants of such studies were students attending specialised schools (e.g. [35, 88, 89]). Hellendoorn and Ruijssenaars [90] interviewed 27 dyslexic adults, 8 of whom had negative, 11 mixed and 8 positive experiences. Hughes and Dawson [86] interviewed 54 dyslexic adults. Just over half said they mostly disliked school. Riddick et al. [91] interviewed 16 dyslexic students in higher education, of whom only three reported overall positive experiences. Though none of these studies claim to be representative of the whole population of dyslexic people, they suggest that from one third to one half of dyslexic adults may remember school in primarily negative terms.

### **4. The highest echelon of university assessment**

Currently, the highest level of global academic examination is Doctorate of Philosophy (PhD), for which most university use oral examination (viva voce) (e.g. [92–94]). Doctorate examination boards do not question, query, consider or ask for verification whether the verbal-visual 80,000–120,000 word PhD document has been handwritten, typewritten, dictated to a secretary, or produced through assisted technology. The Board of Examiners simply accepts the PhD Document,

**7**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

given such choices? Rather an oxymoron!

profile of dyslexia (e.g., [8, 34, 89]).

**5. The examination experience**

than examination concessions.

36 (o.33%) as dyslexic.1

Dr Anne-Marie Callus.

of students in examinations (e.g., [102–104]).

as this would still the candidate's work irrespective of the process of the medium of expression. On the other hand, examiners may choose to read the work in the traditional format or use assisted technology to listen to the document. The conundrum is: why it is then not so easy for students in compulsory or university education to be

Examinations at critical stages in students' education are becoming increasingly more high stakes [38, 95]. They provide students with necessary qualifications for further education or employment [96]. They therefore have a significant impact on students' life chances and opportunities [97], thus dominating students' lives and school experiences, further influencing future plans affecting life styles (e.g., no time for extracurricular activities) due to the constant pressure to do well [96, 97]. This of course applies to all students but may be more stressful for those with a

Research findings clearly indicate that examinations have an impact on all students' lives (e.g., [98–100]). However, "the effects of examinations may be magnified for those who enter the process already labouring under a disadvantage" ([101] p. 8). Research findings consistently conclude that dyslexic students experience greater challenges than non-dyslexic students when sitting for examinations. These challenges include reading fluency and accuracy, auditory sequential short-term memory, sequencing, and organisation of ideas that all impact on the performance

The lack of scientific consensus about what dyslexia really is leads examination boards to query this profile [4]. Crisp et al. [102] lamented that assessment communities have continued to persist that difficulties and challenges students with dyslexia face are similar to students with weak reading abilities or lower cognitive skills. Chetcuti et al. [38] presented the voices of young people with dyslexia and concluded that the participants shared their "frustrations, anxieties and hopes for a fairer examinations system" (p. 445). To address equity, fair play and wellbeing, dyslexic youth in the Chetcuti et al. [39] research perceived a need for radical transformations of examination systems and implored for participatory justice [105, 106], where they should "participate meaningfully throughout the decisionmaking processes" ([107], p. 346). Hence, my argument to switch to choice rather

**6. University students with dyslexia - crunching numbers**

Whilst it is generally accepted that dyslexia affects 10–15% of the general population (e.g., [3, 108, 109]), research evidences underrepresentation at universities. For example, Richardson and Wydell [110] reported 0.48% British-based; and Stampoltzis and Polychronopoulou [111] 0.16% Greek University Students noting reading difficulties. Further, during academic year 2019–2020, out of 11,117 students attending the UM, only 201 (1.18%) students registered with its Access Disability Support Unit (ADSU). Of these, seven (0.06%) described themselves as Specific Learning Difficulties/Learning Difficulties, six as dyscalculic (o.o5%) and

<sup>1</sup> September 2020 e-mails' correspondence with ADSU official Ms Marchita Mangiafico and ADSU chair

### *Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

abilities and skills to have enabled them to build ASC allowing them to remain resilient and motivated to learn and who, perhaps, were in supportive home environments and school systems [8, 30]. The question that lingers is: what brain drain are our commu-

Kannangara [8] concluded that experiences can present a model where one can either languish or thrive with a profile of dyslexia. She reported that, a thriving dyslexic presents positive acceptance towards challenges, embraces difficulties, uses signature strengths to address obstacles, learns from criticisms, perseveres, withstands, and finds alternative approaches to address failures. Unfortunately, a 2019 report [84] by the British Dyslexia Association (BDA) evidenced that parents reported the following effects of a profile of dyslexia on their children: 82% try to hide their struggles; 88% experience poor self-esteem, 84% suffer from anxiety; 52% try to avoid school; 78% feel embarrassed; 48% had been bullied, 95% experience frustration, 58% avoid discussing their dyslexia, and 82% try to hide

BDA [84] concluded that "children and young people are uncomfortable, and experience negative emotions linked to their dyslexia …our data may demonstrate

Studies exploring school experiences through interviews offer an overall experience of strong, negative emotions (e.g., [34, 85, 86]). Studies exploring how dyslexic people make sense of their positive and negative emotions in relation to school experiences have also presented positive experience (e.g., [8, 87, 88]). One needs to, however, take into consideration that some of the participants of such studies were students attending specialised schools (e.g. [35, 88, 89]). Hellendoorn and Ruijssenaars [90] interviewed 27 dyslexic adults, 8 of whom had negative, 11 mixed and 8 positive experiences. Hughes and Dawson [86] interviewed 54 dyslexic adults. Just over half said they mostly disliked school. Riddick et al. [91] interviewed 16 dyslexic students in higher education, of whom only three reported overall positive experiences. Though none of these studies claim to be representative of the whole population of dyslexic people, they suggest that from one third to one half of dyslexic adults may remember school in primarily negative terms.

Currently, the highest level of global academic examination is Doctorate of Philosophy (PhD), for which most university use oral examination (viva voce) (e.g. [92–94]). Doctorate examination boards do not question, query, consider or ask for verification whether the verbal-visual 80,000–120,000 word PhD document has been handwritten, typewritten, dictated to a secretary, or produced through assisted technology. The Board of Examiners simply accepts the PhD Document,

an association between dyslexia and mental health difficulties" (p. 19).

**4. The highest echelon of university assessment**

nities experiencing because school environments lead students to low ASC? Research findings consistently suggest that teachers and lecturers fail to understand the complexities related to dyslexia and other learning challenges (e.g., [79–81]). They tend to perceive dyslexia as similar to other learning difficulties [82] and are less likely to account for students' abilities [81]. Lack of understanding and adequate appropriate support may lead to students not completing their studies or graduating with inferior degree classifications than deserved. Caskey's [83] Australian research identified that adult dyslexics tend to live in a "dual world, one that is related to the Medical versus Social Model of Disability. Despite the research on 'ableism' …adult students diagnosed with dyslexia were navigating through the system barriers searching for support, between the inclusion and exclusion zones" (p. 264). However, when "advocate, support and services were provided…in the

form of advocacy, success can occur" ([83], p. 266).

their difficulties relating to dyslexia.

**6**

as this would still the candidate's work irrespective of the process of the medium of expression. On the other hand, examiners may choose to read the work in the traditional format or use assisted technology to listen to the document. The conundrum is: why it is then not so easy for students in compulsory or university education to be given such choices? Rather an oxymoron!

Examinations at critical stages in students' education are becoming increasingly more high stakes [38, 95]. They provide students with necessary qualifications for further education or employment [96]. They therefore have a significant impact on students' life chances and opportunities [97], thus dominating students' lives and school experiences, further influencing future plans affecting life styles (e.g., no time for extracurricular activities) due to the constant pressure to do well [96, 97]. This of course applies to all students but may be more stressful for those with a profile of dyslexia (e.g., [8, 34, 89]).

### **5. The examination experience**

Research findings clearly indicate that examinations have an impact on all students' lives (e.g., [98–100]). However, "the effects of examinations may be magnified for those who enter the process already labouring under a disadvantage" ([101] p. 8). Research findings consistently conclude that dyslexic students experience greater challenges than non-dyslexic students when sitting for examinations. These challenges include reading fluency and accuracy, auditory sequential short-term memory, sequencing, and organisation of ideas that all impact on the performance of students in examinations (e.g., [102–104]).

The lack of scientific consensus about what dyslexia really is leads examination boards to query this profile [4]. Crisp et al. [102] lamented that assessment communities have continued to persist that difficulties and challenges students with dyslexia face are similar to students with weak reading abilities or lower cognitive skills. Chetcuti et al. [38] presented the voices of young people with dyslexia and concluded that the participants shared their "frustrations, anxieties and hopes for a fairer examinations system" (p. 445). To address equity, fair play and wellbeing, dyslexic youth in the Chetcuti et al. [39] research perceived a need for radical transformations of examination systems and implored for participatory justice [105, 106], where they should "participate meaningfully throughout the decisionmaking processes" ([107], p. 346). Hence, my argument to switch to choice rather than examination concessions.

### **6. University students with dyslexia - crunching numbers**

Whilst it is generally accepted that dyslexia affects 10–15% of the general population (e.g., [3, 108, 109]), research evidences underrepresentation at universities. For example, Richardson and Wydell [110] reported 0.48% British-based; and Stampoltzis and Polychronopoulou [111] 0.16% Greek University Students noting reading difficulties. Further, during academic year 2019–2020, out of 11,117 students attending the UM, only 201 (1.18%) students registered with its Access Disability Support Unit (ADSU). Of these, seven (0.06%) described themselves as Specific Learning Difficulties/Learning Difficulties, six as dyscalculic (o.o5%) and 36 (o.33%) as dyslexic.1

<sup>1</sup> September 2020 e-mails' correspondence with ADSU official Ms Marchita Mangiafico and ADSU chair Dr Anne-Marie Callus.

Richardson and Wydell [110] reported that their analysis of databases of students in British higher education evidenced 0.46% in 1995–1996 and 1.51% by 2000-to 2001. Mortimore and Crozier' [112] reported that between 1999 and 2010, British University students with dyslexia or Specific Learning Difficulties almost quadrupled: from 8370 to 32,655. Richardson [113] reported that the situation continued to improve, as in 2013–2014, 37,710 students with dyslexia or other specific learning difficulties (4.97% of all freshers) were admitted to their first year of study. Likewise, UM reported an increase of students requesting examination access arrangements for national examinations: from 1.6% in 2004 to 10.9% in 2019 [114]. This may mean that most Maltese University Students do not inform UM of their profile and do not utilise any possible learning and examination arrangements. This needs further research.

Richardson [113] reflected that "the increase in the prevalence of dyslexia amongst students in UK higher education may reflect changes in diagnostic procedures, public awareness and admissions policies" (p. 325) and the need for more flexible admission policies by institutions of higher education. Likewise, Olofsson et al. [115] reported that "there are now more students with dyslexia in [Swedish] university courses, in both actual and proportional numbers, from 3634 (1.2%) in 2009 to 5457 (about 1.9%) in 2013" (p. 338). They attributed this increase to four factors: (1) earlier identification and provision; (2) financial and other support in higher education; (3) wider access for older students, thus including those who had performed poorly at school because of undetected dyslexia; and (4) the adoption of more flexible university admissions policies.

### **6.1 Higher education success**

Although the literature is limited, studies seem to indicate that success in higher education is "not impossible for students with dyslexia but may be more difficult" ([116], p. 3). Olofsson et al. [115] reported that around 20% Swedish university students with dyslexia required additional time to complete their degrees, whilst others were able to progress at a normal pace. Richardson and Wydell [110] reported that approximately 40% UK dyslexic graduates obtained first-class or upper secondclass honours. This was, however, lower than the 50% rate for graduates with no reported disabilities. Mortimore and Crozier's [112] study across 17 higher education institutions also concluded challenges with academic skills, higher risk of either discontinuing or acquiring inferior degrees due to a lack of appropriate support. Byrne [117] further noted that, whilst the proportion of British university dyslexic students has lately increased to around 5%, a significant attainment gap remains, as only "around 40% of dyslexic students achieve a 2.1 or above, compared to 52% of non-dyslexic students" (para. 2). Richardson and Wydell [110] used a 1995–1996 British higher education database and discovered that it was more common among students with dyslexia than among other students to either abandon their studies in the first year of study or not finish their study programmes.

This is happening in spite of enshrined university legislations stressing that educational access is moral and humanitarian imperative (e.g., [2, 118, 119]). One also needs to take into considerations that such statistics include students who declare and know that they have such a profile. One then wonders how many more may be university students without awareness of, or fear of disclosing, their profile of dyslexia. Notwithstanding, we still need to take heed of these data as it is "important to identify factors that could contribute to poor representation and experiences of dyslexic students in higher education and seek appropriate solutions" ([116], p. 3).

Despite vast knowledge and conclusive findings, this population continues to struggle to achieve and maintain success. While enrolment in post-secondary

**9**

**7.1 Successful graduates**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

**7. The university experience**

institutions has increased [120], the dropout rate, unemployment rate, more placement in lower prestige jobs, lower income and poverty remain high [121].

Research on dyslexia and university students also presents challenging experiences. For example, Denhart [5] reported that her participants' "three [main] findings [were] inextricably bound with the reluctance to ask for accommodations: (a) an overwhelming workload that is (b) unrecognized and (c) yields products incommensurate with the effort (p. 493)". Additionally, Lock and Layton's [6] participants and Rodis et al.'s [7] autobiographical accounts presented experiences where lecturers perceived dyslexic university students as lazy or lacking effort, also because lecturers were not aware of students' profiles [122]. Rodis et al. [7] and Greenbaum et al. [123] reported that their participants' fear of stigma was worse than others' perceptions of laziness or lack of motivation, even if this led to exhaustion and illness. Further, these participants also regarded the use of accommodations as a failure. This highlights that "the finest accommodations based on the most sophisticated science will have no value if intolerance denies their use" [5], p. 495. Most research on dyslexia and higher education addresses diagnosis, cognitive abilities, compensation strategies and study techniques (e.g., [124–126]). Less research has been directed towards students' own experiences of inclusion in higher education [38, 127]. Olofsson et al. [115] reported that in 2011, Swedish researcher Eriksson Gustavsson carried out a study with 186 students with dyslexia attending six Swedish higher education six institutions. Gustavsson reported that the rate of study of most students was lower than expected, but only few had an extremely slow rate of study. Further, limited achievements had occurred early on in their studies. Olofsson et al. [115] carried out a study with 50 Swedish students with dyslexia using semi-structured interviews and a self-report scale. Their participants reported that reading course books in English (not their mother tongue) and taking notes during lessons were the two most challenging tasks. They felt less challenges when textbooks were in Swedish, and with spelling and written assignments. Half rated themselves as good and slightly more than 10% as particularly good with regard to reading and understanding textbooks in Swedish, whilst their confidence in spelling was less good. On the other hand, 90% rated their ability to find information on Google or other sites on the Internet as good (46%) or very good (44%), whilst 88%, rated their ability to find what they look for on the Internet as good (52%) or very good (36%). Regarding the continuation and completing of a university degree, Olofsson et al. [115] reported that this depended on the students' rate of study. They concluded that about half:

*Manage[d] pretty well despite their reading and writing problems. The mean rate of study for the dyslexic students in the present study was just below the national baseline. However, it should be noted that one-fifth of the dyslexic students have a very low rate of study and will thus need special attention from their teachers. The dyslexic students' mistrust in their own abilities in reading course books and articles in English and in taking notes should be taken into consideration in the develop-*

British and Maltese bachelor's degrees are classified as first, second-upper, second-lower or third class. A first-class or second-upper class is often described as a good degree. Richardson and Wydell [110] found that 53.6% of students with

*ment of support systems for students with dyslexia. (p. 347)*

institutions has increased [120], the dropout rate, unemployment rate, more placement in lower prestige jobs, lower income and poverty remain high [121].

### **7. The university experience**

*Dyslexia*

This needs further research.

more flexible university admissions policies.

the first year of study or not finish their study programmes.

**6.1 Higher education success**

Richardson and Wydell [110] reported that their analysis of databases of students in British higher education evidenced 0.46% in 1995–1996 and 1.51% by 2000-to 2001. Mortimore and Crozier' [112] reported that between 1999 and 2010, British University students with dyslexia or Specific Learning Difficulties almost quadrupled: from 8370 to 32,655. Richardson [113] reported that the situation continued to improve, as in 2013–2014, 37,710 students with dyslexia or other specific learning difficulties (4.97% of all freshers) were admitted to their first year of study. Likewise, UM reported an increase of students requesting examination access arrangements for national examinations: from 1.6% in 2004 to 10.9% in 2019 [114]. This may mean that most Maltese University Students do not inform UM of their profile and do not utilise any possible learning and examination arrangements.

Richardson [113] reflected that "the increase in the prevalence of dyslexia amongst students in UK higher education may reflect changes in diagnostic procedures, public awareness and admissions policies" (p. 325) and the need for more flexible admission policies by institutions of higher education. Likewise, Olofsson et al. [115] reported that "there are now more students with dyslexia in [Swedish] university courses, in both actual and proportional numbers, from 3634 (1.2%) in 2009 to 5457 (about 1.9%) in 2013" (p. 338). They attributed this increase to four factors: (1) earlier identification and provision; (2) financial and other support in higher education; (3) wider access for older students, thus including those who had performed poorly at school because of undetected dyslexia; and (4) the adoption of

Although the literature is limited, studies seem to indicate that success in higher education is "not impossible for students with dyslexia but may be more difficult" ([116], p. 3). Olofsson et al. [115] reported that around 20% Swedish university students with dyslexia required additional time to complete their degrees, whilst others were able to progress at a normal pace. Richardson and Wydell [110] reported that approximately 40% UK dyslexic graduates obtained first-class or upper secondclass honours. This was, however, lower than the 50% rate for graduates with no reported disabilities. Mortimore and Crozier's [112] study across 17 higher education institutions also concluded challenges with academic skills, higher risk of either discontinuing or acquiring inferior degrees due to a lack of appropriate support. Byrne [117] further noted that, whilst the proportion of British university dyslexic students has lately increased to around 5%, a significant attainment gap remains, as only "around 40% of dyslexic students achieve a 2.1 or above, compared to 52% of non-dyslexic students" (para. 2). Richardson and Wydell [110] used a 1995–1996 British higher education database and discovered that it was more common among students with dyslexia than among other students to either abandon their studies in

This is happening in spite of enshrined university legislations stressing that educational access is moral and humanitarian imperative (e.g., [2, 118, 119]). One also needs to take into considerations that such statistics include students who declare and know that they have such a profile. One then wonders how many more may be university students without awareness of, or fear of disclosing, their profile of dyslexia. Notwithstanding, we still need to take heed of these data as it is "important to identify factors that could contribute to poor representation and experiences of dyslexic students in higher education and seek appropriate solutions" ([116], p. 3). Despite vast knowledge and conclusive findings, this population continues to struggle to achieve and maintain success. While enrolment in post-secondary

**8**

Research on dyslexia and university students also presents challenging experiences. For example, Denhart [5] reported that her participants' "three [main] findings [were] inextricably bound with the reluctance to ask for accommodations: (a) an overwhelming workload that is (b) unrecognized and (c) yields products incommensurate with the effort (p. 493)". Additionally, Lock and Layton's [6] participants and Rodis et al.'s [7] autobiographical accounts presented experiences where lecturers perceived dyslexic university students as lazy or lacking effort, also because lecturers were not aware of students' profiles [122]. Rodis et al. [7] and Greenbaum et al. [123] reported that their participants' fear of stigma was worse than others' perceptions of laziness or lack of motivation, even if this led to exhaustion and illness. Further, these participants also regarded the use of accommodations as a failure. This highlights that "the finest accommodations based on the most sophisticated science will have no value if intolerance denies their use" [5], p. 495.

Most research on dyslexia and higher education addresses diagnosis, cognitive abilities, compensation strategies and study techniques (e.g., [124–126]). Less research has been directed towards students' own experiences of inclusion in higher education [38, 127]. Olofsson et al. [115] reported that in 2011, Swedish researcher Eriksson Gustavsson carried out a study with 186 students with dyslexia attending six Swedish higher education six institutions. Gustavsson reported that the rate of study of most students was lower than expected, but only few had an extremely slow rate of study. Further, limited achievements had occurred early on in their studies.

Olofsson et al. [115] carried out a study with 50 Swedish students with dyslexia using semi-structured interviews and a self-report scale. Their participants reported that reading course books in English (not their mother tongue) and taking notes during lessons were the two most challenging tasks. They felt less challenges when textbooks were in Swedish, and with spelling and written assignments. Half rated themselves as good and slightly more than 10% as particularly good with regard to reading and understanding textbooks in Swedish, whilst their confidence in spelling was less good. On the other hand, 90% rated their ability to find information on Google or other sites on the Internet as good (46%) or very good (44%), whilst 88%, rated their ability to find what they look for on the Internet as good (52%) or very good (36%). Regarding the continuation and completing of a university degree, Olofsson et al. [115] reported that this depended on the students' rate of study. They concluded that about half:

*Manage[d] pretty well despite their reading and writing problems. The mean rate of study for the dyslexic students in the present study was just below the national baseline. However, it should be noted that one-fifth of the dyslexic students have a very low rate of study and will thus need special attention from their teachers. The dyslexic students' mistrust in their own abilities in reading course books and articles in English and in taking notes should be taken into consideration in the development of support systems for students with dyslexia. (p. 347)*

### **7.1 Successful graduates**

British and Maltese bachelor's degrees are classified as first, second-upper, second-lower or third class. A first-class or second-upper class is often described as a good degree. Richardson and Wydell [110] found that 53.6% of students with no disability and 43.9% of students with dyslexia were awarded good degrees. The difference in these proportions was rated highly significant, even when possible effects of demographic and programme-related variables were considered. However, data on detailed accounts of students with dyslexia's higher education academic attainment are difficult because national statistics are not collected about other academic outcomes, since many do not disclose their profile, because of description of profile, and due to co-occurrence.

Pino and Mortari's [127] systematic review of published studies on inclusion of students with dyslexia in higher education identified 15, mostly qualitative, studies. They concluded that, whilst valuable information for support services was presented, there was no evidence on attainment. Richardson and Wydell [110] reported that whilst they were aware that the British Open University is known for attracting students with dyslexia, perhaps due to its option for distance learning, they unfortunately had to exclude Open University students from a more detailed analysis because many had been omitted from the database. Richardson and Wydell [110] had concluded that students with dyslexia who had taken undergraduate modules in 2003 with the British Open University were as likely as were nondisabled students to complete their modules. However, they were more likely to obtain poorer grades. A problem with the study was that they were concerned only with students with dyslexia and no other disabilities. They in fact omitted students with dyslexia and additional disabilities from their sample. This is problematic, especially with the conclusion that co-occurrence with other profiles is now considered the norm, exception [71].

### **7.2 Cognitive skills and university learning and performance**

Further to the context of co-occurrence [71], one needs to consider that a profile of dyslexia does not merely involve challenges to access literacy. Such a profile may also include difficulties organising essays, timekeeping, expressing ideas verbally, concentrating and using short-term memory, listening and organisation (e.g., [4, 112, 115]). For example, Simmons and Singleton [128] concluded that dyslexic university students experience challenges drawing inferences from complex texts. They, however, did not specify if alternative access to verbal visual print would have affected such results. This is supported by conclusions that reading characteristics vary widely between students [129].

Studies on writing skills conclude that dyslexic university students present particular challenges with spelling (e.g., [124, 130, 131]), overall written text quality [130, 131], number of words written [132], organisation [112], and vocabulary chosen [132]. On the other hand, comparative differences between university students with or without dyslexia indicate no significant differences in sentence structure, length of sentences [132], expression of ideas or other higher order skills [130]. These findings indicate that such students can cope with university learning, if given the chance, the appropriate support, and with training for university academic [83, 117]. As one youth shared: "I wonder how many great minds were lost simply because the type of intelligence [, access,] and ideas they had were not the the examiners wanted" ([38], p. 439).

Often, these studies refer to challenges experienced using traditional access and presentation of verbal visual print. Therefore, there is a dearth in the literature for one to conclude whether one would experience such challenges if technology were to be used. This is similar to literature available regarding foreign language learning. For example, the British Dyslexia Association (BDA) promotes [133] that "dyslexic children should be given the opportunity to learn a foreign language. Many …will enjoy the multi-sensory methods of language teaching ...Learning a foreign language

**11**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

**8. The lived experience**

these studies.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

broadens pupils' horizons as their awareness of other cultures develops" ([133], para. 1). However, BDA also seems to be chained by traditional access to literacy and pedagogy for foreign language teaching, as it suggests that, "Some languages may be more problematic for dyslexic learners. Languages such as French and English are less transparent than other languages" ([133], para. 2). In a context where (a) the literature clearly concludes that foreign language learning and bilingualism has a positive effect on general cognitive development (e.g., [134–136]); and (b) the EU requires all its citizens to be tri-lingual [137], there seems to be the practice to discourage persons with dyslexia to learn a foreign language. Contrastingly, I have to date not found any

literature (written in Maltese, English or Italian) to support this myth.

Literature addressing day-to-day experiences of university students with dyslexia is dearth. Whilst there is a considerable body of literature exploring overall university experiences of students with a broad range of disabilities, including students with dyslexia (e.g., [138–140]), such studies tend to focus on physical access, social stigma, reasonable adjustments (e.g., [138, 141, 142]). Further, findings regarding dyslexic students are difficult to differentiate from other findings of

Research available addressing experiences (e.g. [115, 116, 127]) evidences challenges, difficulties and frustration. Participants reported difficulties with notetaking, reading journal articles and course books, technology, accessibility and adjustments. These studies seem to indicate that some students, "will overcome these difficulties, [but] the additional effort may lead to greater frustration and lower completion rates than might otherwise be expected" ([116], p. 16). Further, MacCullagh et al. [116] rightly acknowledged that disadvantages may include, "insufficient time to research topics broadly, difficulty balancing paid work and other responsibilities, mental health risks of overwork and less time to participate

in social, sporting, artistic and other extra-curricular activities" (p. 16).

and assessment; and (5) Use of technologies.

practices and opportunities for support is needed.

meta-affective skills.

Pino and Mortari [127] conducted a systematic review of published research on the university experiences of students with dyslexia and reported finding 15 relevant studies. They synthesised the findings in five key themes: (1) Coping strategies (Study skills and Compensatory Strategies); (2) Profile identification; (3) Interaction with academic staff; (4) Accessibility and adjustments to learning

Helpful study skills included making notes from books, accessing materials in multiple formats, colour coding, concept mapping and discussing ideas verbally. Compensatory strategies included downloading slides prior to lectures, obtaining copies of lecture notes, lecture recordings help from family and friends, metacognitive skills included time planning, graphic organisation of information and

Notwithstanding, Pino and Mortari [127] concluded gaps in the literature, particularly regarding strategies for improvement. The available research findings also report difficulties identifying main ideas in text, preparing for tests [126], reading course books and taking notes [143]. Again, one needs further exploration regarding the use of technology as such studies sometimes do not differentiate between traditional reading and reading using technology. For example, Olofsson et al. [143] reported additional information from the internet as a key compensatory strategy; whilst Kirby et al. [126] reported study aids, time management strategies and deep learning approaches as key compensatory strategies. More research exploring study

*Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

no disability and 43.9% of students with dyslexia were awarded good degrees. The difference in these proportions was rated highly significant, even when possible effects of demographic and programme-related variables were considered. However, data on detailed accounts of students with dyslexia's higher education academic attainment are difficult because national statistics are not collected about other academic outcomes, since many do not disclose their profile, because of

Pino and Mortari's [127] systematic review of published studies on inclusion of students with dyslexia in higher education identified 15, mostly qualitative, studies. They concluded that, whilst valuable information for support services was presented, there was no evidence on attainment. Richardson and Wydell [110] reported that whilst they were aware that the British Open University is known for attracting students with dyslexia, perhaps due to its option for distance learning, they unfortunately had to exclude Open University students from a more detailed analysis because many had been omitted from the database. Richardson and Wydell [110] had concluded that students with dyslexia who had taken undergraduate modules in 2003 with the British Open University were as likely as were nondisabled students to complete their modules. However, they were more likely to obtain poorer grades. A problem with the study was that they were concerned only with students with dyslexia and no other disabilities. They in fact omitted students with dyslexia and additional disabilities from their sample. This is problematic, especially with the conclusion that co-occurrence with other profiles is now considered

Further to the context of co-occurrence [71], one needs to consider that a profile of dyslexia does not merely involve challenges to access literacy. Such a profile may also include difficulties organising essays, timekeeping, expressing ideas verbally, concentrating and using short-term memory, listening and organisation (e.g., [4, 112, 115]). For example, Simmons and Singleton [128] concluded that dyslexic university students experience challenges drawing inferences from complex texts. They, however, did not specify if alternative access to verbal visual print would have affected such results. This is supported by conclusions that reading characteristics

Studies on writing skills conclude that dyslexic university students present particular challenges with spelling (e.g., [124, 130, 131]), overall written text quality [130, 131], number of words written [132], organisation [112], and vocabulary chosen [132]. On the other hand, comparative differences between university students with or without dyslexia indicate no significant differences in sentence structure, length of sentences [132], expression of ideas or other higher order skills [130]. These findings indicate that such students can cope with university learning, if given the chance, the appropriate support, and with training for university academic [83, 117]. As one youth shared: "I wonder how many great minds were lost simply because the type of intelligence [, access,] and ideas they had were not the

Often, these studies refer to challenges experienced using traditional access and presentation of verbal visual print. Therefore, there is a dearth in the literature for one to conclude whether one would experience such challenges if technology were to be used. This is similar to literature available regarding foreign language learning. For example, the British Dyslexia Association (BDA) promotes [133] that "dyslexic children should be given the opportunity to learn a foreign language. Many …will enjoy the multi-sensory methods of language teaching ...Learning a foreign language

description of profile, and due to co-occurrence.

**7.2 Cognitive skills and university learning and performance**

the norm, exception [71].

vary widely between students [129].

the examiners wanted" ([38], p. 439).

**10**

broadens pupils' horizons as their awareness of other cultures develops" ([133], para. 1). However, BDA also seems to be chained by traditional access to literacy and pedagogy for foreign language teaching, as it suggests that, "Some languages may be more problematic for dyslexic learners. Languages such as French and English are less transparent than other languages" ([133], para. 2). In a context where (a) the literature clearly concludes that foreign language learning and bilingualism has a positive effect on general cognitive development (e.g., [134–136]); and (b) the EU requires all its citizens to be tri-lingual [137], there seems to be the practice to discourage persons with dyslexia to learn a foreign language. Contrastingly, I have to date not found any literature (written in Maltese, English or Italian) to support this myth.

### **8. The lived experience**

Literature addressing day-to-day experiences of university students with dyslexia is dearth. Whilst there is a considerable body of literature exploring overall university experiences of students with a broad range of disabilities, including students with dyslexia (e.g., [138–140]), such studies tend to focus on physical access, social stigma, reasonable adjustments (e.g., [138, 141, 142]). Further, findings regarding dyslexic students are difficult to differentiate from other findings of these studies.

Research available addressing experiences (e.g. [115, 116, 127]) evidences challenges, difficulties and frustration. Participants reported difficulties with notetaking, reading journal articles and course books, technology, accessibility and adjustments. These studies seem to indicate that some students, "will overcome these difficulties, [but] the additional effort may lead to greater frustration and lower completion rates than might otherwise be expected" ([116], p. 16). Further, MacCullagh et al. [116] rightly acknowledged that disadvantages may include, "insufficient time to research topics broadly, difficulty balancing paid work and other responsibilities, mental health risks of overwork and less time to participate in social, sporting, artistic and other extra-curricular activities" (p. 16).

Pino and Mortari [127] conducted a systematic review of published research on the university experiences of students with dyslexia and reported finding 15 relevant studies. They synthesised the findings in five key themes: (1) Coping strategies (Study skills and Compensatory Strategies); (2) Profile identification; (3) Interaction with academic staff; (4) Accessibility and adjustments to learning and assessment; and (5) Use of technologies.

Helpful study skills included making notes from books, accessing materials in multiple formats, colour coding, concept mapping and discussing ideas verbally. Compensatory strategies included downloading slides prior to lectures, obtaining copies of lecture notes, lecture recordings help from family and friends, metacognitive skills included time planning, graphic organisation of information and meta-affective skills.

Notwithstanding, Pino and Mortari [127] concluded gaps in the literature, particularly regarding strategies for improvement. The available research findings also report difficulties identifying main ideas in text, preparing for tests [126], reading course books and taking notes [143]. Again, one needs further exploration regarding the use of technology as such studies sometimes do not differentiate between traditional reading and reading using technology. For example, Olofsson et al. [143] reported additional information from the internet as a key compensatory strategy; whilst Kirby et al. [126] reported study aids, time management strategies and deep learning approaches as key compensatory strategies. More research exploring study practices and opportunities for support is needed.

MacCullagh et al.'s [116] semi-structured interviews based on best practice methodologies yielded similar data to literature (e.g., [115, 126, 127]). Findings concluded positive themes such as appreciation for engaging speaking style, flexible lecture formats, deep engagement with learning tasks and self-directed learning. Further, students with dyslexia "reported spending a great deal of effort on learning tasks. Participants with dyslexia described engaging with learning tasks intensively and frequently, using multiple strategies. Possible advantages of this effort could include deeper learning and development of creative problem-solving skills" ([116], p. 16). It is interesting that such behaviours [144] are highly sought after in workplaces (e.g. [145–147]). Further, such characteristics are also helpful for all students (e.g. [148–150]).

Disadvantages also include insufficient time to research topics broadly, difficulty balancing paid work and other responsibilities, mental health risks of overwork, and less time to participate in extra-curricular and social activities. These findings add to moral and legal justifications for understanding rather than judging profile of university students with dyslexia. Future research in this area could focus on number of hours per week spent on learning tasks. MacCullagh et al. [116] also discussed that the very coping learning strategy these individuals use are strategies which actually lead to deeper learning and memory. One also needs to consider that such individuals would probably be more highly motivated to be university students, given that they keep striving despite challenges. Additionally, they would most probably have the necessary support system which led them to thrive in, rather than languish for, higher education [8].

Also noteworthy was the strong appreciation among students with dyslexia for face-to-face lectures and for recorded lectures that included a video of the lecturer's face. This is particularly important considering recent trends in the higher education sector towards partially and wholly online courses. Such changes must be critically appraised to prevent compounding disadvantages for students with dyslexia. It may be important to continue offering some face-to-face lectures, and to ensure that recorded lectures include a video of the lecturer talking. This is extremely relevant and important in the current health challenges humans are experiencing. The question would be: how can we find a technological alternative to address the participants' recommended face-to-face intervention?

### **9. University support services**

Studies addressing use of services indicate a strong uptake for resources such as additional time in examinations, dyslexia-support tutors and information technology assistance [112, 143]. Other services include appropriately skilled note-takers, lecture slides in advance, support with organisation and support with academic writing (e.g., [38, 112, 143]).

However, international data consistently reports poor uptake of support services by students with dyslexia. Reasons include poor awareness of services, poor suitability of services and non-disclosure. Most services seem to be designed for people with low vision, illiteracy, general learning disabilities or physical disabilities, rather than students with dyslexia per se. New services may therefore need to be designed specifically for students with dyslexia or existing services tailored to specific needs as identified by students themselves. For example, students suggest dyslexia-specific tutoring and tailored note-taking services (e.g., [112, 143, 151]).

Research findings on appropriate, satisfying and effective support and strategies are consistent with current best practices on inclusive design and accessibility standards [152]. For example, findings of appreciation for videos, images and

**13**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

with other activities [154].

success for students with dyslexia.

**10. Knowledge, attitudes and stigma**

Khan [159] termed as cumulative trauma*.*

people with dyslexia themselves as the main stakeholders.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

face-to-face teaching support the efficacy of multi-modal or multi-sensory teaching for dyslexic learners. This reflects current research and best practice where all learners generally benefit from having information presented in auditory, tactile and visual modalities [151]. Further, all students learn better from lectures presented in shorter 5–20 minute segments rather than longer 60–120minute sessions [153]. This is in keeping with recent educational trends towards the flipped classroom model, in which lectures are broken into smaller chunks and interspersed

Research also indicates that dyslexic students mostly manage their own difficulties on an individual level with minimal access to or assistance from each other. Participants reported developing a unique set of compensatory strategies in isolation from others and without any sharing or supporting each other, support groups or dyslexia associations and agencies (e.g. [115, 116, 127]). In the context of the broader disability and social inclusion literature [155, 156] moving towards a more collectivist community approach is optimal, as students would benefit from collaborating and sharing their ideas, strategies, experiences and insights. For example, MacCullagh et al.'s [116] participants noted that university students with dyslexia not only face considerable learning and assessment challenges but also exhibit strengths. They reported helpful and effective strategies at individual and institutional levels, study techniques, adjustments to course materials, variety of teaching and assessment formats, and specific staff and student training. These were considered as effective measures towards university

MacCullagh et al. [116] linked appropriate and effective learning experiences to university legislation on equity and opportunity, and notes that research findings, "add to moral and legal justifications for provision of accommodations for university students with dyslexia" (p. 16). Likewise, when focusing on post-secondary assessment, Chetcuti et al. [38] implore for more fair play and feedback from young

Studies addressing issues of shame and humiliation cannot just address the university experience, but need to also understand the whole school experience. Many share stories of humiliation, mostly due to being made to read aloud in class or taking longer and/or being punished for taking longer to complete work (e.g. [90, 157, 158]). Participants in such studies narrate that the humiliation was not only due to public exposure of their reading and writing difficulties, but also ridicule from teachers. Such negative experiences affect so deeply, they linger throughout one's lifetime as a traumatic and permanent experience (e.g. [38, 85, 157]) or what

Persons with covert challenges tend to report more negative experiences that those with overt challenges [160]. Barga [161] explored the experiences of nine university students with dyslexia and evidenced experiences of labelling and stigma as barriers to learning. Six participants deliberately did not disclose for fear of rejection, ridicule and stigmatisation. Likewise, Rao [162] reported non-disclosure to avoid negative social repercussion, even though participants were aware that this may have hinder their academic progress and success. Further, the literature continues to evidence stigma towards such a population as being intellectually inferior (e.g., [5, 30, 157]). Dyslexic university students' preference to manage their own difficulties with minimal access to assistance (e.g. [112, 151, 153]) supports research findings indicating shame, embarrassment (e.g. [84, 163, 164]) and complex

### *Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

students (e.g. [148–150]).

rather than languish for, higher education [8].

participants' recommended face-to-face intervention?

**9. University support services**

writing (e.g., [38, 112, 143]).

MacCullagh et al.'s [116] semi-structured interviews based on best practice methodologies yielded similar data to literature (e.g., [115, 126, 127]). Findings concluded positive themes such as appreciation for engaging speaking style, flexible lecture formats, deep engagement with learning tasks and self-directed learning. Further, students with dyslexia "reported spending a great deal of effort on learning tasks. Participants with dyslexia described engaging with learning tasks intensively and frequently, using multiple strategies. Possible advantages of this effort could include deeper learning and development of creative problem-solving skills" ([116], p. 16). It is interesting that such behaviours [144] are highly sought after in workplaces (e.g. [145–147]). Further, such characteristics are also helpful for all

Disadvantages also include insufficient time to research topics broadly, difficulty balancing paid work and other responsibilities, mental health risks of overwork, and less time to participate in extra-curricular and social activities. These findings add to moral and legal justifications for understanding rather than judging profile of university students with dyslexia. Future research in this area could focus on number of hours per week spent on learning tasks. MacCullagh et al. [116] also discussed that the very coping learning strategy these individuals use are strategies which actually lead to deeper learning and memory. One also needs to consider that such individuals would probably be more highly motivated to be university students, given that they keep striving despite challenges. Additionally, they would most probably have the necessary support system which led them to thrive in,

Also noteworthy was the strong appreciation among students with dyslexia for face-to-face lectures and for recorded lectures that included a video of the lecturer's face. This is particularly important considering recent trends in the higher education sector towards partially and wholly online courses. Such changes must be critically appraised to prevent compounding disadvantages for students with dyslexia. It may be important to continue offering some face-to-face lectures, and to ensure that recorded lectures include a video of the lecturer talking. This is extremely relevant and important in the current health challenges humans are experiencing. The question would be: how can we find a technological alternative to address the

Studies addressing use of services indicate a strong uptake for resources such as additional time in examinations, dyslexia-support tutors and information technology assistance [112, 143]. Other services include appropriately skilled note-takers, lecture slides in advance, support with organisation and support with academic

However, international data consistently reports poor uptake of support services by students with dyslexia. Reasons include poor awareness of services, poor suitability of services and non-disclosure. Most services seem to be designed for people with low vision, illiteracy, general learning disabilities or physical disabilities, rather than students with dyslexia per se. New services may therefore need to be designed specifically for students with dyslexia or existing services tailored to specific needs as identified by students themselves. For example, students suggest dyslexia-specific tutoring and tailored note-taking services (e.g., [112, 143, 151]). Research findings on appropriate, satisfying and effective support and strategies are consistent with current best practices on inclusive design and accessibility standards [152]. For example, findings of appreciation for videos, images and

**12**

face-to-face teaching support the efficacy of multi-modal or multi-sensory teaching for dyslexic learners. This reflects current research and best practice where all learners generally benefit from having information presented in auditory, tactile and visual modalities [151]. Further, all students learn better from lectures presented in shorter 5–20 minute segments rather than longer 60–120minute sessions [153]. This is in keeping with recent educational trends towards the flipped classroom model, in which lectures are broken into smaller chunks and interspersed with other activities [154].

Research also indicates that dyslexic students mostly manage their own difficulties on an individual level with minimal access to or assistance from each other. Participants reported developing a unique set of compensatory strategies in isolation from others and without any sharing or supporting each other, support groups or dyslexia associations and agencies (e.g. [115, 116, 127]). In the context of the broader disability and social inclusion literature [155, 156] moving towards a more collectivist community approach is optimal, as students would benefit from collaborating and sharing their ideas, strategies, experiences and insights. For example, MacCullagh et al.'s [116] participants noted that university students with dyslexia not only face considerable learning and assessment challenges but also exhibit strengths. They reported helpful and effective strategies at individual and institutional levels, study techniques, adjustments to course materials, variety of teaching and assessment formats, and specific staff and student training. These were considered as effective measures towards university success for students with dyslexia.

MacCullagh et al. [116] linked appropriate and effective learning experiences to university legislation on equity and opportunity, and notes that research findings, "add to moral and legal justifications for provision of accommodations for university students with dyslexia" (p. 16). Likewise, when focusing on post-secondary assessment, Chetcuti et al. [38] implore for more fair play and feedback from young people with dyslexia themselves as the main stakeholders.

### **10. Knowledge, attitudes and stigma**

Studies addressing issues of shame and humiliation cannot just address the university experience, but need to also understand the whole school experience. Many share stories of humiliation, mostly due to being made to read aloud in class or taking longer and/or being punished for taking longer to complete work (e.g. [90, 157, 158]). Participants in such studies narrate that the humiliation was not only due to public exposure of their reading and writing difficulties, but also ridicule from teachers. Such negative experiences affect so deeply, they linger throughout one's lifetime as a traumatic and permanent experience (e.g. [38, 85, 157]) or what Khan [159] termed as cumulative trauma*.*

Persons with covert challenges tend to report more negative experiences that those with overt challenges [160]. Barga [161] explored the experiences of nine university students with dyslexia and evidenced experiences of labelling and stigma as barriers to learning. Six participants deliberately did not disclose for fear of rejection, ridicule and stigmatisation. Likewise, Rao [162] reported non-disclosure to avoid negative social repercussion, even though participants were aware that this may have hinder their academic progress and success. Further, the literature continues to evidence stigma towards such a population as being intellectually inferior (e.g., [5, 30, 157]). Dyslexic university students' preference to manage their own difficulties with minimal access to assistance (e.g. [112, 151, 153]) supports research findings indicating shame, embarrassment (e.g. [84, 163, 164]) and complex

decision-making processes regarding disclosure [164]. One needs to dream of better inclusive societal approaches and attitudes (e.g., [34, 155, 156]).

Mortimer and Crozier [112, 165] reported that students in their studies expressed frustration at "the lack of communication between the [support] unit and the academic departments. Academic tutors frequently had little knowledge about dyslexia" [112, p, 248]. One of their participants shared how she was publicly Chastised: "In my exam, the lecturer didn't realise I had extra time. In the hall, in public, he said, 'Put your bloody pen down'. I had to say 'I'm sorry I'm dyslexic'. It made me feel like a total leper. There is a lack of communication between departments, some know, some don't (p. 248)." Mortimer and Crozier [112] reported that:

*Although students were unanimous in their appreciation of the staff in support units, they did express criticisms of the lack of staff available, overworked members of staff, a dearth of equipment, limited opening hours and difficulty of access—several students reported that initially they did not know where to go or could not find the unit. Others expressed concern about the stigma of entering a unit labelled 'Disability'. (p. 248)*

### **10.1 Educators' perceptions**

Regarding labelling and teachers' perceptions, strategies and actions, research presents various scenarios. These include difficulties to teach, less intelligence, and feeling sorry for the students (e.g., [166–168]). Frymier and Wanzer [169] also noted that such perceptions often stem from the issue of hidden challenges and negotiations regarding fair accommodations, also in respect to other students. This strengthens my thesis that such accommodation should be a choice-for-all rather than an accommodation. Lock and Layton [6] concluded that lecturers in their study believed that such a label was to get out of doing work, out of laziness, or not trying hard enough. This belief was reaffirmed even when these lecturers were presented with studies that such a population tends to work itself to illness and exhaustion to achieve levels expected from their peers (e.g., [5, 38, 170]).

The literature indicates several reasons for such stigma. These include lack of knowledge [171], invisibility of profile [172], accommodation perceived as cheating by teachers and peers [173], self-fulfilling prophecies leading to underperformance and even criminality [174, 175], confirmation of bias with beliefs, ignoring individual characteristics (e.g., [176–178]) and generation of negative expectations [179].

Labelling, however, also has positive effects as willing teachers may be able to interpret behaviours better to then provide appropriate teaching strategies (e.g., [34, 180, 181]). Further, the label also helps one's understanding of one's own behaviour (e.g., [158, 166, 182]).

### **11. Demographics and effects on lecturers**

One cannot underestimate that dyslexia presents challenges to university lecturers (e.g., [122, 183, 184]). This population has not been visible, although it has always existed (e.g., [112, 165, 185]). Since the challenges are invisible, teaching adaptations for such a population have perhaps been neglected. Widened access to university studies for students with functional disorders, such as dyslexia, have led to this neglect being made visible [143].

Teachers are undoubtedly important people in the lives of dyslexic schoolchildren and teachers who help or hinder play a part in dyslexic people's lives. Teachers remembered most negatively were those who humiliated dyslexic pupils in front

**15**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

report positive experiences [88].

inappropriately (e.g., [90, 91, 167]).

university student reported that:

**success**

of their peers. Many report negative teachers' attitudes towards dyslexic-type difficulties, and lack of knowledge about dyslexia and intervention for dyslexic difficulties. However, pupils who had attended specialist schools were more likely to

Riddick et al. [91] reported that three dyslexic student-participants in higher education experienced positive school experiences and stated that their lecturers had acknowledged their profile, were sensitive to their needs and had provided helpful intervention. A participant from Hellendoorn and Ruijssenaars' [90] study reported that "I will never forget Mr X. When he came in my life, something changed, because he really understood. He at least gave me credit for the hard work I did, even though I still could not read" (p. 233). In contrast, others speak of teachers who treated them as if they were unintelligent and/or lazy, refused to accept that students were dyslexic and/or provide any accommodation and/or taught them

Students with dyslexia judged support received from specialists, teachers from special schools, licenced remedial teachers, speech therapists and psychomotor therapists favourably (e.g. [90, 91, 186]). Burden [88] reported that out of 50 dyslexic boys, 62% explained that mainstream teachers had not understood their feelings, whereas at their specialist school only 4% felt the teachers did not understand their profiles. These findings suggest a need for additional training [9].

**12. Post Covid-19 and technology - compensatory strategies to academic** 

Technology has improved so much [187], that schools [188, 189]must consider its use to access and create print (e.g., [189–191]). Technology is regarded as the "fourth revolution in the means of production of knowledge following language, writing and print" ([190], p. 39). Warschauer and Matuchniak [192] reported a broad consensus among educators, communciation scholars, sociologists and economists that, "information and communication technolgoies (ICT)…bridge the interactive features of speech and archival characterists of writing" (p. 179). Gutenberg's printing press (c. 1440) started the third revolution - printing.

However, it took centuries for printing to truly infiltrate and affect society with the advent of industrial Revolution (c. 1760). The transition between the third (Print) and fourth (Technology) revolution was faster. We have transitioned from an

Given the present global health situation, such research is now even more impor-

tant. Current social distancing has necessitated more independent learning and further use of technology [195]. This may prove more beneficial if the necessary skills are addressed. An Economist's [196] weekly editorial dedicated to the absent

*COVID-19 is catalysing innovation …offering …students the opportunity to take online courses…huge scope for using digital technology to improve education. University are rightly proud of their centuries-old traditions, but their ancient pedigrees have too often been used as an excuse for resisting change. If COVID-19 shakes them out of their complacency, some good may yet come from this disaster. (p. 7)*

One also needs to be cautious and not conclude that millennials and younger generations are automatically technology experts or comfortable with all computer usage. For example, Prensky [197] reported that, with regard to reading materials, approximately half of the students in their study (average age 23.7years), both

industrial to an informative economy in mere decades [193, 194].

### *Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

decision-making processes regarding disclosure [164]. One needs to dream of better

Mortimer and Crozier [112, 165] reported that students in their studies expressed frustration at "the lack of communication between the [support] unit and the academic departments. Academic tutors frequently had little knowledge about dyslexia" [112, p, 248]. One of their participants shared how she was publicly Chastised: "In my exam, the lecturer didn't realise I had extra time. In the hall, in public, he said, 'Put your bloody pen down'. I had to say 'I'm sorry I'm dyslexic'. It made me feel like a total leper. There is a lack of communication between departments, some know, some don't (p. 248)." Mortimer and Crozier [112] reported that:

*Although students were unanimous in their appreciation of the staff in support units, they did express criticisms of the lack of staff available, overworked members of staff, a dearth of equipment, limited opening hours and difficulty of access—several students reported that initially they did not know where to go or could not find the unit. Others expressed concern about the stigma of entering a* 

Regarding labelling and teachers' perceptions, strategies and actions, research presents various scenarios. These include difficulties to teach, less intelligence, and feeling sorry for the students (e.g., [166–168]). Frymier and Wanzer [169] also noted that such perceptions often stem from the issue of hidden challenges and negotiations regarding fair accommodations, also in respect to other students. This strengthens my thesis that such accommodation should be a choice-for-all rather than an accommodation. Lock and Layton [6] concluded that lecturers in their study believed that such a label was to get out of doing work, out of laziness, or not trying hard enough. This belief was reaffirmed even when these lecturers were presented with studies that such a population tends to work itself to illness and

exhaustion to achieve levels expected from their peers (e.g., [5, 38, 170]).

The literature indicates several reasons for such stigma. These include lack of knowledge [171], invisibility of profile [172], accommodation perceived as cheating by teachers and peers [173], self-fulfilling prophecies leading to underperformance and even criminality [174, 175], confirmation of bias with beliefs, ignoring individual characteristics (e.g., [176–178]) and generation of negative expectations [179]. Labelling, however, also has positive effects as willing teachers may be able to interpret behaviours better to then provide appropriate teaching strategies (e.g., [34, 180, 181]). Further, the label also helps one's understanding of one's own

One cannot underestimate that dyslexia presents challenges to university lecturers (e.g., [122, 183, 184]). This population has not been visible, although it has always existed (e.g., [112, 165, 185]). Since the challenges are invisible, teaching adaptations for such a population have perhaps been neglected. Widened access to university studies for students with functional disorders, such as dyslexia, have led

Teachers are undoubtedly important people in the lives of dyslexic schoolchildren and teachers who help or hinder play a part in dyslexic people's lives. Teachers remembered most negatively were those who humiliated dyslexic pupils in front

inclusive societal approaches and attitudes (e.g., [34, 155, 156]).

*unit labelled 'Disability'. (p. 248)*

**10.1 Educators' perceptions**

behaviour (e.g., [158, 166, 182]).

**11. Demographics and effects on lecturers**

to this neglect being made visible [143].

**14**

of their peers. Many report negative teachers' attitudes towards dyslexic-type difficulties, and lack of knowledge about dyslexia and intervention for dyslexic difficulties. However, pupils who had attended specialist schools were more likely to report positive experiences [88].

Riddick et al. [91] reported that three dyslexic student-participants in higher education experienced positive school experiences and stated that their lecturers had acknowledged their profile, were sensitive to their needs and had provided helpful intervention. A participant from Hellendoorn and Ruijssenaars' [90] study reported that "I will never forget Mr X. When he came in my life, something changed, because he really understood. He at least gave me credit for the hard work I did, even though I still could not read" (p. 233). In contrast, others speak of teachers who treated them as if they were unintelligent and/or lazy, refused to accept that students were dyslexic and/or provide any accommodation and/or taught them inappropriately (e.g., [90, 91, 167]).

Students with dyslexia judged support received from specialists, teachers from special schools, licenced remedial teachers, speech therapists and psychomotor therapists favourably (e.g. [90, 91, 186]). Burden [88] reported that out of 50 dyslexic boys, 62% explained that mainstream teachers had not understood their feelings, whereas at their specialist school only 4% felt the teachers did not understand their profiles. These findings suggest a need for additional training [9].

### **12. Post Covid-19 and technology - compensatory strategies to academic success**

Technology has improved so much [187], that schools [188, 189]must consider its use to access and create print (e.g., [189–191]). Technology is regarded as the "fourth revolution in the means of production of knowledge following language, writing and print" ([190], p. 39). Warschauer and Matuchniak [192] reported a broad consensus among educators, communciation scholars, sociologists and economists that, "information and communication technolgoies (ICT)…bridge the interactive features of speech and archival characterists of writing" (p. 179). Gutenberg's printing press (c. 1440) started the third revolution - printing. However, it took centuries for printing to truly infiltrate and affect society with the advent of industrial Revolution (c. 1760). The transition between the third (Print) and fourth (Technology) revolution was faster. We have transitioned from an industrial to an informative economy in mere decades [193, 194].

Given the present global health situation, such research is now even more important. Current social distancing has necessitated more independent learning and further use of technology [195]. This may prove more beneficial if the necessary skills are addressed. An Economist's [196] weekly editorial dedicated to the absent university student reported that:

*COVID-19 is catalysing innovation …offering …students the opportunity to take online courses…huge scope for using digital technology to improve education. University are rightly proud of their centuries-old traditions, but their ancient pedigrees have too often been used as an excuse for resisting change. If COVID-19 shakes them out of their complacency, some good may yet come from this disaster. (p. 7)*

One also needs to be cautious and not conclude that millennials and younger generations are automatically technology experts or comfortable with all computer usage. For example, Prensky [197] reported that, with regard to reading materials, approximately half of the students in their study (average age 23.7years), both

dyslexic (7 of 13) and non-dyslexic (11 of 20), expressed difficulty reading text online and using learning technologies. This contradicts assertions that the 'net generation' is all 'digital natives' and can be expected to use educational technology with ease and proficiency. Rather, the data from this study support Kennedy, et al.'s [198] conclusion that students in the 'net generation' are not necessarily technology experts and may require explicit technology training. This may also be due to their school experiences regarding Access to literacy and learning.

## **13. Final thought**

UNESCO [199] reports that "at least 750 million youth and adults still cannot read and write and 250 million children are failing to acquire basic literacy skills" [para. 3], thus excluding excludes them from "full participation in their communities and societies" [para.3]. Clinton's [200] International Literacy Day message implored that:

*If our world is to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century, we must harness the energy and creativity of all our citizens. Nearly half of American adults lack many of the basic literacy skills so essential to success in today's complex and everchanging world. Literacy is not a luxury; it is a right and a responsibility. And in an international community increasingly dedicated to the principles of equality and opportunity, illiteracy is unacceptable. (p. 1713)*

In this chapter, I endeavoured to reflect on what should be considered as literacy in the 21st century and how our communities need to ensure that all who want to pursue further academic education may do so easily and with dignity. The aim was to help highlight what literacy means in the 21st century and what competencies relate to intelligence and academic success, or otherwise. In human's fourth revolution of knowledge, transmission and sharing [190]**,** whilst we need to appropriately train educators to ensure that all become proficient in all literacies as early as possible (e.g. [9, 20, 21]), we must also consider that traditional skills of reading and writing cannot continue to remain obstacles [201] for whom such skills are not so easy to learn and become proficient in. As Leonardi da Vinci noted: "I would rather have a scientific mind without literary skills, than a literary person without a scientific mind"2 .

## **Acknowledgements**

I would like to thank my colleagues, Dr Anne Marie Callus and Marchita Mangiafico for providing me with the data regarding University of Malta students. I would also like to thank all those children and young people with dyslexia whose experiences and wisdom have enriched my life, including my son.

## **Conflict of interest**

The author declares no conflict of interest.

**17**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

**Author details**

Ruth Falzon1,2,3,4,5,6

Counselling Profession (MACP)

(EDA)

1 University of Malta, Tal-Qroqq L-Imsida, Malta EU MSD2080

2 Elected Board Member and Secretary of the Malta Dyslexia Association (MDA)

3 Elected Board Director and Treasurer of the European Dyslexia Association

4 Elected Council Member/Vice-Secretary of the Malta Association for the

5 Membership Chair of the International Association for Counselling (IAC)

Research and Evaluation in School-Based Counseling (ISPRESC)

\*Address all correspondence to: ruth.falzon@um.edu.mt

provided the original work is properly cited.

6 Elected Council member and Treasurer of The International Society for Policy

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

<sup>2</sup> Sentence often attributed to Leonardo da Vinci (e.g. azquotes, quotefancy, quotemaster). I continue to search for the original source in his writings.

*Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

**13. Final thought**

**Acknowledgements**

**Conflict of interest**

dyslexic (7 of 13) and non-dyslexic (11 of 20), expressed difficulty reading text online and using learning technologies. This contradicts assertions that the 'net generation' is all 'digital natives' and can be expected to use educational technology with ease and proficiency. Rather, the data from this study support Kennedy, et al.'s [198] conclusion that students in the 'net generation' are not necessarily technology experts and may require explicit technology training. This may also be due to their

UNESCO [199] reports that "at least 750 million youth and adults still cannot read and write and 250 million children are failing to acquire basic literacy skills" [para. 3], thus excluding excludes them from "full participation in their communities and societies" [para.3]. Clinton's [200] International Literacy Day message implored that:

*If our world is to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century, we must harness the energy and creativity of all our citizens. Nearly half of American adults lack many of the basic literacy skills so essential to success in today's complex and everchanging world. Literacy is not a luxury; it is a right and a responsibility. And in an international community increasingly dedicated to the principles of equality and* 

In this chapter, I endeavoured to reflect on what should be considered as literacy in the 21st century and how our communities need to ensure that all who want to pursue further academic education may do so easily and with dignity. The aim was to help highlight what literacy means in the 21st century and what competencies relate to intelligence and academic success, or otherwise. In human's fourth revolution of knowledge, transmission and sharing [190]**,** whilst we need to appropriately train educators to ensure that all become proficient in all literacies as early as possible (e.g. [9, 20, 21]), we must also consider that traditional skills of reading and writing cannot continue to remain obstacles [201] for whom such skills are not so easy to learn and become proficient in. As Leonardi da Vinci noted: "I would rather have a scientific mind without literary skills, than a literary person without a scientific mind"2

I would like to thank my colleagues, Dr Anne Marie Callus and Marchita Mangiafico for providing me with the data regarding University of Malta students. I would also like to thank all those children and young people with dyslexia whose

<sup>2</sup> Sentence often attributed to Leonardo da Vinci (e.g. azquotes, quotefancy, quotemaster). I continue to

experiences and wisdom have enriched my life, including my son.

The author declares no conflict of interest.

search for the original source in his writings.

.

school experiences regarding Access to literacy and learning.

*opportunity, illiteracy is unacceptable. (p. 1713)*

**16**

### **Author details**

Ruth Falzon1,2,3,4,5,6

1 University of Malta, Tal-Qroqq L-Imsida, Malta EU MSD2080

2 Elected Board Member and Secretary of the Malta Dyslexia Association (MDA)

3 Elected Board Director and Treasurer of the European Dyslexia Association (EDA)

4 Elected Council Member/Vice-Secretary of the Malta Association for the Counselling Profession (MACP)

5 Membership Chair of the International Association for Counselling (IAC)

6 Elected Council member and Treasurer of The International Society for Policy Research and Evaluation in School-Based Counseling (ISPRESC)

\*Address all correspondence to: ruth.falzon@um.edu.mt

© 2020 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/ by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

### **References**

[1] Falzon, R. & Camilleri J. (2014) Request for oral examinations at the SEC and MATSEC levels. National petition presented to the Maltese Parliament. https://www.change.org/p/ministryfor-education-and-employment-givethe-option-to-students-to-do-theirexaminations-in-writing-orally-orusing-a-word-processor

[2] University of Malta (2018). The University of Malta Access Arrangements. Available from https://www.um.edu.mt/\_\_data/ assets/pdf\_file/0004/378481/ UMGuidelinescomplete2018.pdf

[3] Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). Dyslexia (specific reading disability). *Pediatrics in Review*, *24*(5), 147-153. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/ viewdoc/download? doi=10.1.1.840. 6505&rep=rep1&type=pdf

[4] Snowling, M., Hulme, C. & Nation, K. (2020). Defining and understanding dyslexia: past, present and future, *Oxford Review of Education*, 46:4, 501- 513, https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2 020.1765756

[5] Denhart, H. (2008). Deconstructing barriers: Perceptions of students labeled with learning disabilities in higher education. *Journal of learning disabilities*, *41*(6), 483-497. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022219408321151

[6] Lock, R. H., & Layton, C. A. (2001). Succeeding in Postsecondary Ed through Self-Advocacy. *Teaching Exceptional Children*, 34, 66-71. https:// doi.org/10.1177/004005990103400210

[7] Rodis, P., Garrod, A., & Boscardin, M. L. (2001). Learning disabilities and life stories. Allyn & Bacon.

[8] Kannangara, C. S. (2015). From languishing dyslexia to thriving dyslexia: developing a new conceptual approach to working with people with dyslexia. *Frontiers in psychology*, *6*, 1976. https://doi.org/10.3389/ fpsyg.2015.01976

[9] Falzon, R. (2012). *Early educators' awareness and knowledge of structured multisensory literary instruction* (Doctoral dissertation, Northumbria University). http://nrl.northumbria. ac.uk/ id/eprint/10837/1/falzon. ruth\_phd.pdf

[10] Freire, P. (1970). *The pedagogy of the oppressed*. Harper and Harper

[11] Freire, P. (1985). *The politics of education: Culture, power, and liberation*. Greenwood Publishing Group

[12] Johnson, D., & Kress, G. (2003). Globalisation, literacy and society: Redesigning pedagogy and assessment. *Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice*, *10*(1), 5-14. https:doi.org/ 10.1080/09695940301697

[13] Adams, M.J. (1990). *Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print*. MIT Press.

[14] Adams, M. J. (2011). The relation between alphabetic basics, word recognition, and reading. *What research has to say about reading instruction*, 4-24. Available from https://www. researchgate. net/profile/Marilyn\_Adams3/ publication/294428324\_

[15] UNESCO (2005) Education for All Global Monitoring Report - Education for all: 2006 Literacy for life. Paris France: UNESCO. Available from http:// unesdoc. unesco.org/ images/0014/ 001416/141639e.pdf

[16] Cameron, D. (2011). David Cameron's Thursday 11th Aug 2011 address to parliament. https:// www. telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/

**19**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

[17] Clinton W.J. (1997). State of the Union Address. https://

Brochure-Modified.pdf

[20] Moats, L. C. (2009). Still wanted: Teachers with knowledge of language. *Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42 (5),* 387-391. https://doi.

org/10.1177/0022219409338735

[22] Ehri, L. C. (2020). The science of learning to read words: A case for systematic phonics instruction. *Reading Research Quarterly*. 55 (S1) S45-S60. https://doi-org.ejournals. um.edu. mt

[23] Rigney, D. (2010). *The Matthew effect: How advantage begets further advantage.* University Press.

[24] Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew Effects in Reading: Some Consequences

Acquisition of Literacy. *Reading Research Quarterly, 21 (4),* 360-407. https://doi.

[25] Tannenbaum, K. R., Torgesen, J. K., & Wagner, R. K. (2006). Relationships

of Individual Differences in the

org/10.1598/RRQ.21.4.1

/10.1002/rrq.334

[21] Stanovich, K. E. (2009). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. *Journal of education*, *189*(1-2), 23-55. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022057409189001-204

SOU97

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

crime/8695272/UK-riots-text-of-David-Camerons-address-to-Commons.html

between word knowledge and reading comprehension in third-grade children. *Scientific Studies of Reading*, 10(4), 381-398. https://doi.org/10.1207/

[27] Paris, S. G. (2005). Reinterpreting the development of reading skills. *Reading Research Quarterly*, 40(2), 184-202. https://doi.org/10.1598/

[28] Wijekumar, K. (2020). The 'GIST' of the reading comprehension problem in grades 4 and 5. *Dyslexia*, 1-18. https://

s1532799xssr1004\_3

publication/?m=13959

doi.org/10.1002/dys.1647

[29] Mendes, G. G., & Barrera, S. D. (2017). Phonological Processing and Reading and Writing Skills in Literacy. *Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto)*, *27*(68), 298-305. https://doi. org/10.1590/1982-43272768201707

[30] Chetcuti, D., Falzon, R., & Camilleri S. (2016). *D pebble in my shoe: Teenagers' experiences of dyslexia and examinations.* Published by the authors (Erasmus+ programme)

[31] Macdonald, S. J., & Deacon, L. (2019). Twice upon a time: Examining the effect socio-economic status has on the experience of dyslexia in the United Kingdom. *Dyslexia*, *25*(1), 3-19. https://

[32] Daily, S. M., Mann, M. J., Lilly, C. L., Dyer, A. M., Smith, M. L., & Kristjansson, A. L. (2020). School Climate as an Intervention to Reduce Academic Failure and Educate the Whole Child: A Longitudinal Study. *Journal of School Health*, *90*(3), 182-193. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12863

978-99957-0-999-0

doi.org/10.1002/dys.1606

RRQ.40.2.3

[26] Cain, K. (2016). Reading comprehension development and difficulties: An overview. *Perspectives on Language and Literacy,* 42(2), 9-16. https://mydigitalpublication.com/

clintonwhitehouse2.archives.gov/WH/

[18] Al Nasser, N. A (2012). Celebrating International Literacy Day. Rethinking Literacy: How Far Have We Gone in Reaching the Literacy Goal? http:// www.un.org/en/ga/president/66/ International-Literacy-Day%20

[19] Hirsch, E.D. Jnr. (1996). The schools we need and why we don't have them. (2nd Ed.). Anchor Books, Doubleday.

### *Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

crime/8695272/UK-riots-text-of-David-Camerons-address-to-Commons.html

[17] Clinton W.J. (1997). State of the Union Address. https:// clintonwhitehouse2.archives.gov/WH/ SOU97

[18] Al Nasser, N. A (2012). Celebrating International Literacy Day. Rethinking Literacy: How Far Have We Gone in Reaching the Literacy Goal? http:// www.un.org/en/ga/president/66/ International-Literacy-Day%20 Brochure-Modified.pdf

[19] Hirsch, E.D. Jnr. (1996). The schools we need and why we don't have them. (2nd Ed.). Anchor Books, Doubleday.

[20] Moats, L. C. (2009). Still wanted: Teachers with knowledge of language. *Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42 (5),* 387-391. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022219409338735

[21] Stanovich, K. E. (2009). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. *Journal of education*, *189*(1-2), 23-55. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022057409189001-204

[22] Ehri, L. C. (2020). The science of learning to read words: A case for systematic phonics instruction. *Reading Research Quarterly*. 55 (S1) S45-S60. https://doi-org.ejournals. um.edu. mt /10.1002/rrq.334

[23] Rigney, D. (2010). *The Matthew effect: How advantage begets further advantage.* University Press.

[24] Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew Effects in Reading: Some Consequences of Individual Differences in the Acquisition of Literacy. *Reading Research Quarterly, 21 (4),* 360-407. https://doi. org/10.1598/RRQ.21.4.1

[25] Tannenbaum, K. R., Torgesen, J. K., & Wagner, R. K. (2006). Relationships

between word knowledge and reading comprehension in third-grade children. *Scientific Studies of Reading*, 10(4), 381-398. https://doi.org/10.1207/ s1532799xssr1004\_3

[26] Cain, K. (2016). Reading comprehension development and difficulties: An overview. *Perspectives on Language and Literacy,* 42(2), 9-16. https://mydigitalpublication.com/ publication/?m=13959

[27] Paris, S. G. (2005). Reinterpreting the development of reading skills. *Reading Research Quarterly*, 40(2), 184-202. https://doi.org/10.1598/ RRQ.40.2.3

[28] Wijekumar, K. (2020). The 'GIST' of the reading comprehension problem in grades 4 and 5. *Dyslexia*, 1-18. https:// doi.org/10.1002/dys.1647

[29] Mendes, G. G., & Barrera, S. D. (2017). Phonological Processing and Reading and Writing Skills in Literacy. *Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto)*, *27*(68), 298-305. https://doi. org/10.1590/1982-43272768201707

[30] Chetcuti, D., Falzon, R., & Camilleri S. (2016). *D pebble in my shoe: Teenagers' experiences of dyslexia and examinations.* Published by the authors (Erasmus+ programme) 978-99957-0-999-0

[31] Macdonald, S. J., & Deacon, L. (2019). Twice upon a time: Examining the effect socio-economic status has on the experience of dyslexia in the United Kingdom. *Dyslexia*, *25*(1), 3-19. https:// doi.org/10.1002/dys.1606

[32] Daily, S. M., Mann, M. J., Lilly, C. L., Dyer, A. M., Smith, M. L., & Kristjansson, A. L. (2020). School Climate as an Intervention to Reduce Academic Failure and Educate the Whole Child: A Longitudinal Study. *Journal of School Health*, *90*(3), 182-193. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12863

**18**

*Dyslexia*

**References**

[1] Falzon, R. & Camilleri J. (2014) Request for oral examinations at the SEC and MATSEC levels. National petition presented to the Maltese Parliament. https://www.change.org/p/ministryfor-education-and-employment-givethe-option-to-students-to-do-theirexaminations-in-writing-orally-orapproach to working with people with dyslexia. *Frontiers in psychology*, *6*, 1976. https://doi.org/10.3389/

[9] Falzon, R. (2012). *Early educators' awareness and knowledge of structured multisensory literary instruction* (Doctoral dissertation, Northumbria University). http://nrl.northumbria. ac.uk/ id/eprint/10837/1/falzon.

[10] Freire, P. (1970). *The pedagogy of the* 

*oppressed*. Harper and Harper

Greenwood Publishing Group

10.1080/09695940301697

[14] Adams, M. J. (2011). The relation between alphabetic basics, word recognition, and reading. *What research has to say about reading instruction*, 4-24. Available from https://www. researchgate. net/profile/Marilyn\_Adams3/ publication/294428324\_

MIT Press.

[11] Freire, P. (1985). *The politics of education: Culture, power, and liberation*.

[12] Johnson, D., & Kress, G. (2003). Globalisation, literacy and society: Redesigning pedagogy and assessment. *Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice*, *10*(1), 5-14. https:doi.org/

[13] Adams, M.J. (1990). *Beginning to read: thinking and learning about print*.

[15] UNESCO (2005) Education for All Global Monitoring Report - Education for all: 2006 Literacy for life. Paris France: UNESCO. Available from http:// unesdoc. unesco.org/ images/0014/

001416/141639e.pdf

[16] Cameron, D. (2011). David Cameron's Thursday 11th Aug 2011 address to parliament. https:// www. telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/

fpsyg.2015.01976

ruth\_phd.pdf

using-a-word-processor

[2] University of Malta (2018). The University of Malta Access Arrangements. Available from https://www.um.edu.mt/\_\_data/ assets/pdf\_file/0004/378481/ UMGuidelinescomplete2018.pdf

[3] Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). Dyslexia (specific reading disability). *Pediatrics in Review*, *24*(5), 147-153. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/ viewdoc/download? doi=10.1.1.840.

[4] Snowling, M., Hulme, C. & Nation, K. (2020). Defining and understanding dyslexia: past, present and future, *Oxford Review of Education*, 46:4, 501- 513, https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2

[5] Denhart, H. (2008). Deconstructing barriers: Perceptions of students labeled with learning disabilities in higher education. *Journal of learning disabilities*, *41*(6), 483-497. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022219408321151

[6] Lock, R. H., & Layton, C. A. (2001). Succeeding in Postsecondary Ed through Self-Advocacy. *Teaching Exceptional Children*, 34, 66-71. https:// doi.org/10.1177/004005990103400210

[7] Rodis, P., Garrod, A., & Boscardin, M. L. (2001). Learning disabilities and

[8] Kannangara, C. S. (2015). From languishing dyslexia to thriving dyslexia: developing a new conceptual

life stories. Allyn & Bacon.

6505&rep=rep1&type=pdf

020.1765756

[33] Nickerson, R. S. (2020). Technology in education in 2020: Thinking about the not-distant future. In R.S. Nickerson & Zodhiates, P.P. (Eds.) *Technology in education: Looking toward 2020,* (pp. 1-9). Routledge

[34] Antonelli, L., Bilocca, S., Borg, D., Borg, S., Boxall, M., Briffa, L. Debono, C., Falzon, R., Farrugia, V., Gatt, L., Formosa, M., Mifsud, D., Mizzi, K., Scurfield, L., Scurfield, M. & Vella, G.L. (2014). Drama, performance ethnography, and self-esteem: Listening to youngsters with dyslexia and their parents. *SAGE Open*, *4*(2), https://doi. org/10.1177/2158244014534696

[35] Burden, R. (2008). Dyslexia and self-concept: A review of past research with implications for future action. In G. Reid., A. J. Fawcett, F. Manis, L.S. Siegel, *The Sage handbook of dyslexia*, 395-410. Sage Publications Ltd

[36] Humphrey, N., & Mullins, P. M. (2002). Research section: Personal constructs and attribution for academic success and failure in dyslexia. *British Journal of Special Education*, *29*(4), 196-203. https://doi. org/10.1111/1467-8527.00269

[37] Humphrey, N., & Mullins, P. M. (2002). Self-concept and selfesteem in developmental dyslexia. *Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs*, *2*(2). https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1471-3802.2002.00163.x

[38] Chetcuti, D., Falzon, R. & Camilleri S. (2019) 'The Pebble in my shoe': Dyslexic students and their views of examinations. In C. Bezzina & S. Caruana (Eds.) *Teacher Education Matters: Transforming*, 433-447. University of Malta

[39] Falzon, R. (2019). Literacy and Wellbeing. In S. Vella, R. Falzon & A. Azzopardi (Eds), *Perspectives on Wellbeing - A Reader* (pp. 79-95). Brill Sense.

[40] Kendeou, P., McMaster, K. L., & Christ, T. J. (2016). Reading comprehension: Core components and processes. *Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences*, *3*(1), 62-69. https://doi. org/10.1177/2372732215624707

[41] Florit, E., & Cain, K. (2011). The simple view of reading: Is it valid for different types of alphabetic orthographies?. *Educational Psychology Review*, *23*(4), 553-576. https://doi. org/10.1007/ s10648-011-9175-6

[42] Aarnoutse, C., van Leeuwe, J., & Verhoeven, L. (2005). Early literacy from a longitudinal perspective. *Educational Research and Evaluation*, *11*(3), 253-275. https://doi. org/10.1080/08993400500101054

[43] Kim, Y. S. G. (2017). Why the simple view of reading is not simplistic: Unpacking component skills of reading using a direct and indirect effect model of reading (DIER). *Scientific Studies of Reading*, *21*(4), 310-333. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/10888438.2017.1291643

[44] Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Bryant, P. (2004). Children's reading comprehension ability: Concurrent prediction by working memory, verbal ability, and component skills. *Journal of educational psychology*, *96*(1), 31-42. https://doi. org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.31

[45] Oakhill, J. V., & Cain, K. (2012). The precursors of reading ability in young readers: Evidence from a four-year longitudinal study. *Scientific studies of reading*, *16*(2), 91-121. https://doi.org/10 .1080/10888438.2010.529219

[46] Abadiano, H. R., & Turner, J. (2005). Reading fluency: The road to developing efficient and effective readers. *New England Reading Association Journal*, *41*(1), 50-56. https:// pdfs.semanticscholar.org/21dd/7d8c43c1 a3e5d39adb90d21b76db45db98ca.pdf

**21**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

2020-09-11]

Press.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

[56] C-Pen® (n.d.) A reading pen from C-PEN®. Available from https://cpen. com/ product/ readerpen/ [Accessed

[57] Scanmarker (n.d.). The Digital Highlighter. Available from https:// scanmarker.com/[Accessed 2020-09-12]

[58] Scanning Pens (n.d.). Reader pen - a major technological

breakthrough. Available from https:// www.scanningpens.co.uk/[Accessed

[59] C-Pen® ExamReader™ (n.d.). ExamReader™. Available from https:// cpen.com/ product/examreader/

[60] Exam reader (n.d.) Exam reader powered by Scanning Pens. Available from https://www.scanningpens.com/ ExamReaderUS/ [Accessed 2020-09-11]

[61] Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. *Annals of Dyslexia*, *53*(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/

[62] Tunmer, W., & Greaney, K. (2010). Defining dyslexia. *Journal of Learning Disabilities*, 43(3), 229-243. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022219409345009

[63] Stanovich, K. (1999). The sociopsychometrics of learning disabilities. *Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32*(No. 4 July/August), 350-361. http://www.keithstanovich. com/Site/Research\_on\_Reading\_files/

[64] Bell, S. (2010). Inclusion for adults with dyslexia: Examining the transition periods of a group of adults in England: 'Clever is when you come to a brick wall and you have got to get over it without a ladder'. *Journal of Research in Special Education Needs*, 10(3), 216-226. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1471-3802.2010.01167.x

[Accessed 2020-09-11]

s11881-003-0001-9

JLD99.pdf

2020-09-11]

2020-09-12]

[47] *Essay* (n.d.). Dictionary.com .Available from http://dictionary. reference. com/browse/essay. [Accessed

[48] Stanovich, K. E. (2000). *Progress in Understanding Reading: Scientific Foundations and New Frontiers*. Guilford

[49] Gotesman, E., & Goldfus, C. (2010). The impact of assistive technologies on the reading outcomes of college students with disabilities. *Educational Technology*, *50*(3), 21-25. http://telem-pub.openu.ac.il/users/

[50] Higgins, E. L., & Raskind, M. H. (2004). Speech recognition-based and automaticity programs to help students with severe reading and spelling problems. *Annals of Dyslexia*, *54*(2), 365-388. https://doi.org/10.1007/

[51] Meridith, L., & Linda, P. (2009). Commercial software programs approved for teaching reading and writing in the primary grades: Another sobering reality. *Journal of Research on Technology in Education*, *42*(2), 197-216. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2009.

[52] AbilityNet (2015). Factsheet - Dyslexia and computing. https://www. abilitynet.org.uk/sites/abilitynet.

[53] Microsoft 365 (n.d.) Introducing Microsoft 365. Available from https:// www. microsoft.com /en/microsoft-365

[54] My Computer My Way (n.d.) My Computer My Way: Help making your device easier to use Available from https://mcmw.abilitynet.org.

[55] Natural Reader (n.d.) Available from https://www.naturalreaders. com/[Accessed 2020-09-11]

[Accessed 2020-09-11]

uk/[Accessed 2020-09-11]

chais/2009/noon/2\_2.pdf

s11881-004-0017-9

10782547

*Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

1-9). Routledge

[33] Nickerson, R. S. (2020). Technology in education in 2020: Thinking about the not-distant future. In R.S. Nickerson & Zodhiates, P.P. (Eds.) *Technology in education: Looking toward 2020,* (pp.

[40] Kendeou, P., McMaster, K. L., & Christ, T. J. (2016). Reading comprehension: Core components and processes. *Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences*, *3*(1), 62-69. https://doi. org/10.1177/2372732215624707

[41] Florit, E., & Cain, K. (2011). The simple view of reading: Is it valid for different types of alphabetic orthographies?. *Educational Psychology Review*, *23*(4), 553-576. https://doi. org/10.1007/ s10648-011-9175-6

[42] Aarnoutse, C., van Leeuwe, J., & Verhoeven, L. (2005). Early literacy from a longitudinal

perspective. *Educational Research and Evaluation*, *11*(3), 253-275. https://doi. org/10.1080/08993400500101054

[43] Kim, Y. S. G. (2017). Why the simple view of reading is not simplistic: Unpacking component skills of reading using a direct and indirect effect model of reading (DIER). *Scientific Studies of Reading*, *21*(4), 310-333. https://doi.org/

10.1080/10888438.2017.1291643

[44] Cain, K., Oakhill, J., & Bryant, P. (2004). Children's reading comprehension ability: Concurrent prediction by working memory, verbal ability, and component skills. *Journal of educational* 

*psychology*, *96*(1), 31-42. https://doi. org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.31

.1080/10888438.2010.529219

[46] Abadiano, H. R., & Turner, J. (2005). Reading fluency: The road to developing efficient and effective readers. *New England Reading* 

*Association Journal*, *41*(1), 50-56. https:// pdfs.semanticscholar.org/21dd/7d8c43c1 a3e5d39adb90d21b76db45db98ca.pdf

[45] Oakhill, J. V., & Cain, K. (2012). The precursors of reading ability in young readers: Evidence from a four-year longitudinal study. *Scientific studies of reading*, *16*(2), 91-121. https://doi.org/10

[34] Antonelli, L., Bilocca, S., Borg, D., Borg, S., Boxall, M., Briffa, L. Debono, C., Falzon, R., Farrugia, V., Gatt, L., Formosa, M., Mifsud, D., Mizzi, K., Scurfield, L., Scurfield, M. & Vella, G.L. (2014). Drama, performance ethnography, and self-esteem: Listening to youngsters with dyslexia and their parents. *SAGE Open*, *4*(2), https://doi. org/10.1177/2158244014534696

[35] Burden, R. (2008). Dyslexia and self-concept: A review of past research with implications for future action. In G. Reid., A. J. Fawcett, F. Manis, L.S. Siegel, *The Sage handbook of dyslexia*, 395-410. Sage Publications Ltd

[36] Humphrey, N., & Mullins, P. M. (2002). Research section: Personal constructs and attribution for academic success and failure in dyslexia. *British Journal of Special Education*, *29*(4), 196-203. https://doi.

org/10.1111/1467-8527.00269

[37] Humphrey, N., & Mullins, P. M. (2002). Self-concept and selfesteem in developmental dyslexia. *Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs*, *2*(2). https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1471-3802.2002.00163.x

[38] Chetcuti, D., Falzon, R. & Camilleri S. (2019) 'The Pebble in my shoe': Dyslexic students and their views of examinations. In C. Bezzina & S. Caruana (Eds.) *Teacher Education Matters: Transforming*, 433-447.

[39] Falzon, R. (2019). Literacy and Wellbeing. In S. Vella, R. Falzon & A. Azzopardi (Eds), *Perspectives on Wellbeing - A Reader* (pp. 79-95). Brill

University of Malta

**20**

Sense.

[47] *Essay* (n.d.). Dictionary.com .Available from http://dictionary. reference. com/browse/essay. [Accessed 2020-09-11]

[48] Stanovich, K. E. (2000). *Progress in Understanding Reading: Scientific Foundations and New Frontiers*. Guilford Press.

[49] Gotesman, E., & Goldfus, C. (2010). The impact of assistive technologies on the reading outcomes of college students with disabilities. *Educational Technology*, *50*(3), 21-25. http://telem-pub.openu.ac.il/users/ chais/2009/noon/2\_2.pdf

[50] Higgins, E. L., & Raskind, M. H. (2004). Speech recognition-based and automaticity programs to help students with severe reading and spelling problems. *Annals of Dyslexia*, *54*(2), 365-388. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11881-004-0017-9

[51] Meridith, L., & Linda, P. (2009). Commercial software programs approved for teaching reading and writing in the primary grades: Another sobering reality. *Journal of Research on Technology in Education*, *42*(2), 197-216. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2009. 10782547

[52] AbilityNet (2015). Factsheet - Dyslexia and computing. https://www. abilitynet.org.uk/sites/abilitynet.

[53] Microsoft 365 (n.d.) Introducing Microsoft 365. Available from https:// www. microsoft.com /en/microsoft-365 [Accessed 2020-09-11]

[54] My Computer My Way (n.d.) My Computer My Way: Help making your device easier to use Available from https://mcmw.abilitynet.org. uk/[Accessed 2020-09-11]

[55] Natural Reader (n.d.) Available from https://www.naturalreaders. com/[Accessed 2020-09-11]

[56] C-Pen® (n.d.) A reading pen from C-PEN®. Available from https://cpen. com/ product/ readerpen/ [Accessed 2020-09-11]

[57] Scanmarker (n.d.). The Digital Highlighter. Available from https:// scanmarker.com/[Accessed 2020-09-12]

[58] Scanning Pens (n.d.). Reader pen - a major technological breakthrough. Available from https:// www.scanningpens.co.uk/[Accessed 2020-09-12]

[59] C-Pen® ExamReader™ (n.d.). ExamReader™. Available from https:// cpen.com/ product/examreader/ [Accessed 2020-09-11]

[60] Exam reader (n.d.) Exam reader powered by Scanning Pens. Available from https://www.scanningpens.com/ ExamReaderUS/ [Accessed 2020-09-11]

[61] Lyon, G. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2003). A definition of dyslexia. *Annals of Dyslexia*, *53*(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11881-003-0001-9

[62] Tunmer, W., & Greaney, K. (2010). Defining dyslexia. *Journal of Learning Disabilities*, 43(3), 229-243. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022219409345009

[63] Stanovich, K. (1999). The sociopsychometrics of learning disabilities. *Journal of Learning Disabilities, 32*(No. 4 July/August), 350-361. http://www.keithstanovich. com/Site/Research\_on\_Reading\_files/ JLD99.pdf

[64] Bell, S. (2010). Inclusion for adults with dyslexia: Examining the transition periods of a group of adults in England: 'Clever is when you come to a brick wall and you have got to get over it without a ladder'. *Journal of Research in Special Education Needs*, 10(3), 216-226. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1471-3802.2010.01167.x

[65] McLoughlin, D., & Leather, C. (2013). *The dyslexic adult: Interventions and outcomes – an evidence-based approach* (2nd Ed/). John Wiley & Sons.

[66] Riddell, S., & Weedon, E. (2006). What counts as reasonable adjustment? Dyslexic students and the concept of fair assessment. *International Studies in Sociology of Education, 16*(1), 57-73. https://doi. org/10.1080/19620210600804301

[67] Su, M., Zhao, J., de Schotten, M. T., Zhou, W., Gong, G., Ramus, F., & Shu, H. (2018). Alterations in white matter pathways underlying phonological and morphological processing in Chinese developmental dyslexia. *Developmental cognitive neuroscience*, *31*, 11-19. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2018.04.002

[68] Zoccolotti, P., & Friedmann, N. (2010). From dyslexia to dyslexias, from dysgraphia to dysgraphias, from a cause to causes: a look at current research on developmental dyslexia and dysgraphia. https://doi.org/0.1016/j. cortex.2010.09.003

[69] Kale, S. (2020, September 17). *The Long Read: The Battle over Dyslexia.* https://www. theguardian.com/ news/2020/sep/17/battle-over-dyslexiawarwickshire-staffordshire

[70] Elliot, J. G., & Grigorkenko, E. L. (2014). *The dyslexia debate*. Cambridge University Press.

[71] American Psychiatric Association. (2013). *Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5)*. American Psychiatric Publishing.

[72] Mitchell, D., & Sutherland, D. (2020). *What really works in special and inclusive education: Using evidence-based teaching strategies*. Routledge.

[73] Mackelprang, R. W., & Salsgiver, R. O. (2016). *Disability: A diversity model approach in human service practice*. Oxford University Press.

[74] Skarstad, K. (2018). Human rights through the lens of disability. *Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights*, *36*(1), 24-42. https://doi. org/10.1177/0924051917753251

[75] Corcodel, V. (2019). *Modern law and otherness: the dynamics of inclusion and exclusion in comparative legal thought*. Edward Elgar Publishing.

[76] Hallam, E., & Street, B. (Eds.). (2013). *Cultural encounters: Representing otherness*. Routledge.

[77] Furedi, F. (2004). *Therapy culture: cultivating vulnerability in an uncertain age*, Routledge.

[78] Zeleke, S. (2004). Self-concepts of students with learning disabilities and their normally achieving peers: a review. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 19(2), 45-170. https://doi. org/10.1080/08856250410001678469

[79] Jobling, A., & Moni, K. (2004). 'I never imagined I'd have to teach these children': providing authentic learning experiences for secondary pre-service teachers in teaching students with special needs. *Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 32*(1), 6-22. https:// doi.org/ 10.1080/1359866042000206026

[80] Marshall, J., Ralph, S., & Palmer, S. (2002). 'I wasn't trained to work with them': mainstream teachers' attitudes to children with speech and language difficulties. *International Journal of Inclusive Education, 6*(3), 199-215. https://doi. org/10.1080/13603110110067208

[81] Tanner, K. (2010). *The Lived Experience of Adults with Dyslexia: An Exploration of the Perceptions of Their Educational Experiences.* (Doctor of Philosophy), Murdoch University, Perth. https://researchrepository. murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/4128/

[82] Reid Lyon, G., & Weiser, B. (2009). Teacher knowledge, instructional

**23**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*32*(2), 100-104. https://doi.

org/10.1111/j.0952-3383.2005.00378.x

[90] Hellendoorn, J. & Ruijssenaars, W. (2000) Personal experiences and adjustment of dutch adults with dyslexia. *Remedial and Special Education,* 21(4)*,* 227-239. https://doi. org/10.1177/074193250002100405

[91] Riddick, B., Sterling, C., Farmer, M. & Morgan, S. (1999) Self-esteem and anxiety in the educational histories of adult dyslexic students. *DYSLEXIA,* 5, 227-248. https://doi.org/10.1002/ (SICI)1099-0909(199912)5:4<227::AID-

[92] Bernstein, B. L., Evans, B., Fyffe, J., Halai, N., Hall, F. L., Jensen, H. S. & Ortega, S. (2014). In *Globalization and its impacts on the quality of PhD education* (pp. 5-30). Brill Sense.

[93] Park, C. (2005). New variant PhD: The changing nature of the doctorate in the UK. *Journal of higher education policy and management*, *27*(2),

189-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/

[94] Tinkler, P., & Jackson, C. (2000). Examining the doctorate: institutional policy and the PhD examination process in Britain. *Studies in higher education*, *25*(2), 167-180. https://doi.

[95] Hopfenbeck, T. (2017). Balancing the challenges of high-stakes testing, accountability and students' well-being. *Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 24*(1), 1-3. https://doi.org/10

[96] Elwood, J. (2012). Qualifications, examinations and assessment: views and perspectives of students in the 14-19 phase on policy and practice. *Cambridge Journal of Education, 42*(4), 497-512. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057

.1080/0969594X.2016.1277068

64X.2012.733347

13600800500120068

org/10.1080/713696136

DYS146>3.0.CO;2-6

[83] Caskey, J. (2017). When Educational Support Is Just Not Enough: Adult Students Diagnosed with Dyslexia in Technical and Further Education (TAFE). *Doctor of Philosophy* 

*dissertation University of the Sunshine Coast.* https://www. google.com/ search?q=Caskey%2C+J.+(2017). +Whe n+Educational+Support+Is+Just+Not+

[84] British Dyslexia Association (2019). *The human cost of dyslexia The emotional and psychological impact of poorly supported dyslexia. Report from the All-Party Parliamentary Group for Dyslexia and other SpLDs April 2019.* https://cdn. bdadyslexia.org.uk/documents/Final-APPG-for-Human-cost-of-dyslexia-

[85] Edwards, J. (1994). *The scars of* 

[86] Hughes, W. & Dawson, R. (1995) Memories of school: Adult dyslexics recall their school days. *Support for Learning,* 10(4)*,* 181-184. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-9604.1995.tb00037.x

[87] Armstrong, D. & Humphrey, N. (2009) Reactions to a diagnosis of dyslexia among students entering further education: Development of the 'resistance-accommodation' model. *British Journal of Special Education,* 36(2)*,* 95-102. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-8578.2008.00408.x

[88] Burden, R. (2005). Dyslexia & Selfconcept. Seeking a Dyslexic Identity.

Whurr Publishers Ltd.

[89] Burden, R., & Burdett, J. (2005). Factors associated with successful learning in pupils with dyslexia: a motivational analysis. *British Journal of special education*,

Enough

appg-report.pdf

*dyslexia.* Cassell.

expertise and the development of reading proficiency. *Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42 (5),* 475-480. https://doi.

org/10.1177/0022219409338741

*Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

[65] McLoughlin, D., & Leather, C. (2013). *The dyslexic adult: Interventions and outcomes – an evidence-based approach* (2nd Ed/). John Wiley & Sons. [74] Skarstad, K. (2018). Human rights through the lens of disability. *Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights*, *36*(1), 24-42. https://doi. org/10.1177/0924051917753251

Edward Elgar Publishing.

*otherness*. Routledge.

*age*, Routledge.

[75] Corcodel, V. (2019). *Modern law and otherness: the dynamics of inclusion and exclusion in comparative legal thought*.

[76] Hallam, E., & Street, B. (Eds.). (2013). *Cultural encounters: Representing* 

[77] Furedi, F. (2004). *Therapy culture: cultivating vulnerability in an uncertain* 

[78] Zeleke, S. (2004). Self-concepts of students with learning disabilities and their normally achieving peers: a review. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 19(2), 45-170. https://doi. org/10.1080/08856250410001678469

[79] Jobling, A., & Moni, K. (2004). 'I never imagined I'd have to teach these children': providing authentic learning experiences for secondary pre-service teachers in teaching students with special needs. *Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 32*(1), 6-22. https:// doi.org/ 10.1080/1359866042000206026

[80] Marshall, J., Ralph, S., & Palmer, S. (2002). 'I wasn't trained to work with them': mainstream teachers' attitudes to children with speech and language difficulties. *International Journal of Inclusive Education, 6*(3), 199-215. https://doi. org/10.1080/13603110110067208

[81] Tanner, K. (2010). *The Lived Experience of Adults with Dyslexia: An Exploration of the Perceptions of Their Educational Experiences.* (Doctor of Philosophy), Murdoch University, Perth. https://researchrepository. murdoch.edu.au/id/eprint/4128/

[82] Reid Lyon, G., & Weiser, B. (2009). Teacher knowledge, instructional

[66] Riddell, S., & Weedon, E. (2006). What counts as reasonable adjustment? Dyslexic students and the concept of fair assessment. *International Studies in Sociology of Education, 16*(1), 57-73. https://doi. org/10.1080/19620210600804301

[67] Su, M., Zhao, J., de Schotten, M. T., Zhou, W., Gong, G., Ramus, F., & Shu, H. (2018). Alterations in white matter pathways underlying phonological and morphological processing in Chinese developmental dyslexia. *Developmental cognitive neuroscience*, *31*, 11-19. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2018.04.002

[68] Zoccolotti, P., & Friedmann, N. (2010). From dyslexia to dyslexias, from dysgraphia to dysgraphias, from a cause to causes: a look at current research on developmental dyslexia and dysgraphia. https://doi.org/0.1016/j.

[69] Kale, S. (2020, September 17). *The Long Read: The Battle over Dyslexia.* https://www. theguardian.com/

news/2020/sep/17/battle-over-dyslexia-

[70] Elliot, J. G., & Grigorkenko, E. L. (2014). *The dyslexia debate*. Cambridge

[71] American Psychiatric Association. (2013). *Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-5)*. American

[72] Mitchell, D., & Sutherland, D. (2020). *What really works in special and inclusive education: Using evidence-based* 

[73] Mackelprang, R. W., & Salsgiver, R. O. (2016). *Disability: A diversity model approach in human service practice*.

*teaching strategies*. Routledge.

Oxford University Press.

warwickshire-staffordshire

cortex.2010.09.003

University Press.

Psychiatric Publishing.

**22**

expertise and the development of reading proficiency. *Journal of Learning Disabilities, 42 (5),* 475-480. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022219409338741

[83] Caskey, J. (2017). When Educational Support Is Just Not Enough: Adult Students Diagnosed with Dyslexia in Technical and Further Education (TAFE). *Doctor of Philosophy dissertation University of the Sunshine Coast.* https://www. google.com/ search?q=Caskey%2C+J.+(2017). +Whe n+Educational+Support+Is+Just+Not+ Enough

[84] British Dyslexia Association (2019). *The human cost of dyslexia The emotional and psychological impact of poorly supported dyslexia. Report from the All-Party Parliamentary Group for Dyslexia and other SpLDs April 2019.* https://cdn. bdadyslexia.org.uk/documents/Final-APPG-for-Human-cost-of-dyslexiaappg-report.pdf

[85] Edwards, J. (1994). *The scars of dyslexia.* Cassell.

[86] Hughes, W. & Dawson, R. (1995) Memories of school: Adult dyslexics recall their school days. *Support for Learning,* 10(4)*,* 181-184. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-9604.1995.tb00037.x

[87] Armstrong, D. & Humphrey, N. (2009) Reactions to a diagnosis of dyslexia among students entering further education: Development of the 'resistance-accommodation' model. *British Journal of Special Education,* 36(2)*,* 95-102. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1467-8578.2008.00408.x

[88] Burden, R. (2005). Dyslexia & Selfconcept. Seeking a Dyslexic Identity. Whurr Publishers Ltd.

[89] Burden, R., & Burdett, J. (2005). Factors associated with successful learning in pupils with dyslexia: a motivational analysis. *British Journal of special education*, *32*(2), 100-104. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.0952-3383.2005.00378.x

[90] Hellendoorn, J. & Ruijssenaars, W. (2000) Personal experiences and adjustment of dutch adults with dyslexia. *Remedial and Special Education,* 21(4)*,* 227-239. https://doi. org/10.1177/074193250002100405

[91] Riddick, B., Sterling, C., Farmer, M. & Morgan, S. (1999) Self-esteem and anxiety in the educational histories of adult dyslexic students. *DYSLEXIA,* 5, 227-248. https://doi.org/10.1002/ (SICI)1099-0909(199912)5:4<227::AID-DYS146>3.0.CO;2-6

[92] Bernstein, B. L., Evans, B., Fyffe, J., Halai, N., Hall, F. L., Jensen, H. S. & Ortega, S. (2014). In *Globalization and its impacts on the quality of PhD education* (pp. 5-30). Brill Sense.

[93] Park, C. (2005). New variant PhD: The changing nature of the doctorate in the UK. *Journal of higher education policy and management*, *27*(2), 189-207. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13600800500120068

[94] Tinkler, P., & Jackson, C. (2000). Examining the doctorate: institutional policy and the PhD examination process in Britain. *Studies in higher education*, *25*(2), 167-180. https://doi. org/10.1080/713696136

[95] Hopfenbeck, T. (2017). Balancing the challenges of high-stakes testing, accountability and students' well-being. *Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 24*(1), 1-3. https://doi.org/10 .1080/0969594X.2016.1277068

[96] Elwood, J. (2012). Qualifications, examinations and assessment: views and perspectives of students in the 14-19 phase on policy and practice. *Cambridge Journal of Education, 42*(4), 497-512. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057 64X.2012.733347

[97] Elwood, J., Hopfenbeck, T., & Baird, J. (2017). Predictability in high-stakes examinations: students' perspectives on a perennnial assessment dilemma. *Research Papers in Education, 32*(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2015. 1086015

[98] Costarelli, V., & Patsai, A. (2012). Academic examination stress increases disordered eating symptomatology in female university students. *Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity*, *17*(3), e164-e169. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03325343

[99] Oaten, M., & Cheng, K. (2005). Academic examination stress impairs self–control. *Journal of social and clinical psychology*, *24*(2), 254-279. https://doi. org/10.1521/jscp.24.2.254.62276

[100] Xiang, Z., Tan, S., Kang, Q., Zhang, B., & Zhu, L. (2019). Longitudinal effects of examination stress on psychological well-being and a possible mediating role of selfesteem in Chinese high school students. *Journal of Happiness Studies*, *20*(1), 283-305. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10902-017-9948-9

[101] Gardner, J., Holmes, B., & Leitch, R. (2009). *Assessment and Social Justice: a Futurelab literature review, Report 16.* Bristol: Futurelab. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/322896490\_Assessment\_ and\_Social\_ Justice

[102] Crisp, V., Johnson, M., & Novacovic, N. (2012). The effects of features of examination questions on the performance of students with dyslexia. *British Educational Research Journal, 38*(5), 813-839. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1080/01411926.2011.584964

[103] Falzon, R. & Camilleri J. (2014) Request for oral examinations at the SEC and MATSEC levels. National petition presented to the Maltese Parliament. https://www.change.

org/p/ministry-for-education-andemployment-give-the-option-tostudents-to-do-their-examinationsin-writing-orally-or-using-a-wordprocessor

[104] Lerner, J. W., & Johns, B. (2011). *Learning disabilities and related mild disabilities*. Cengage Learning.

[105] Cribb, A., & Gerwitz, S. (2003). Towards a sociology of just practices: an analysis of plural conceptions of justice. In C. Vincent (Ed.). *Social Justice in Education* (pp. 15-29). Routledge, Falmer.

[106] Klenowski, V. (2009). Australian indigenous students: addressing equity issues in assessment. *Teaching Education, 20*(1), 77-93. https://doi. org/10.1080/10476210802681741

[107] Elwood, J., & Lundy, L. (2010). Revisioning assessment though a children's rights approach: implications for policy, process and practice. *Research Papers in Education, 25*(3), 335-353. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2010. 498150

[108] Katusic, S. K., Colligan, R. C., Barbaresi, W. J., Schaid, D. J., & Jacobsen, S. J. (2001). Incidence of reading disability in a populationbased birth cohort, 1976-1982, Rochester, Minn. *Mayo Clin Proc*, 76, 1081-1092. https://doi.org/ 10.4065/76.11.1081

[109] Rao, S., Raj, A., Ramanathan, V., Sharma, A., Dhar, M., Thatkar, P. V., & Pal, R. (2017). Prevalence of dyslexia among school children in Mysore. *International Journal of Medical Science and Public Health*, *6*(1), 159- 164. https://www.researchgate.net/ profile/Murali\_Dhar4/publication/ 311715972\_Prevalence\_of\_dyslexia\_ among\_school\_children\_in\_Mysore/ links/585788ff08aeff086bfcaf8f/ Prevalence-of-dyslexia-among-schoolchildren-in-Mysore.pdf

**25**

university

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

[111] Stampoltzis, A., &

*Needs*, 8(1), 37-46. https://doi.

[112] Mortimore, T., & Crozier, W. R. (2006). Dyslexia and difficulties with study skills in higher education. *Studies in higher education*, *31*(2), 235-251. https://doi. org/10.1080/03075070600572173

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

[118] Hall, L. M., & Belch, H. A. (2000). Setting the context: Reconsidering the principles of full participation and meaningful access for students with disabilities. *New Directions for Student Services*, 91, 5-17. https://doi.

org/10.1002/ss.9101

[Accessed 2020-09-24]

DC: Heath Resource Center.

Pro-Ed.

17.2011.641002

002221949602900206

journal.pone.0038081

s11881-012-0068-2

[119] University of Oxford (n.d.) *Guidance for disabled applicants.* Available from https://www.ox.ac.uk/ admissions/undergraduate/applyingto-oxford/guidance-disabled-applicants

[120] Henderson, K. (2001). 2001 college freshmen with disabilities: A biennial statistical profile (pp. 42). Washington,

[121] Gerber, P. J., & Brown, D. (1997). *Learning disabilities and employment*.

[122] Cameron, H., & Nunkoosing, K. (2012). Lecturer perspectives on dyslexia and dyslexic students within one faculty at one university in England. *Teaching in Higher Education*, *17*(3), 341-352. https://doi.org/10.1080/135625

[123] Greenbaum, B., Graham, S., & Scales, W. (1996). Adults with learning disabilities: Occupational and social status after college. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 167-173. https://doi.org/10.1177/

[124] Callens, M., Tops, W., & Brysbaert, M. (2012). Cognitive profile of students who enter higher education with an indication of dyslexia. *Plos One*, 7(6e38081). https://doi.org/10.1371/

[125] Deacon, S. H., Cook, K., & Parrila, R. (2012). Identifying high-functioning dyslexics: is self-report of early reading problems enough?. *Annals of Dyslexia*, *62*(2), 120-134. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/

Polychronopoulou, S. (2008). Dyslexia in Greek higher education: A study of incidence, policy and provision. *Journal of Research in Special Education* 

org/10.1111/j.1471-3802.2008.00100.x

[113] Richardson, J. T. (2015). Academic attainment in students with dyslexia in distance education. *Dyslexia*, *21*(4), 323- 337. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1502

[114] University of Malta (2020). *Statistical report secondary education certificate examinations 2019.* https:// www.um.edu.mt/\_\_data/assets/ pdf\_file/0007/438694/ SECStatReport

[115] Olofsson, A., Taube, K., & Ahl, A. (2015). Academic achievement of university students with dyslexia. *Dyslexia*, 21, 338-349. https://doi.

[116] MacCullagh, L., Bosanquet, A., & Badcock, N. A. (2017). University students with dyslexia: A qualitative exploratory study of learning practices, challenges and strategies. Dyslexia, 23(1), 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1544

[117] Byrne, C. (2018) *Why do dyslexic students do worse at university?* The Guardian. https://www. theguardian. com/education/2018/dec/06/whydo-dyslexic-students-do-worse-at-

2019FINAL.pdf

org/10.1002/dys.1517

[110] Richardson, J. T. E., & Wydell, T. N. (2003). The representation and attainment of students with dyslexia in UK higher education. *Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal*, 16, 475-503. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024261927214

### *Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

1086015

[97] Elwood, J., Hopfenbeck, T., & Baird, J. (2017). Predictability in high-stakes examinations: students' perspectives on a perennnial assessment dilemma. *Research Papers in Education, 32*(1), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2015.

org/p/ministry-for-education-andemployment-give-the-option-tostudents-to-do-their-examinationsin-writing-orally-or-using-a-word-

[104] Lerner, J. W., & Johns, B. (2011). *Learning disabilities and related mild disabilities*. Cengage Learning.

[105] Cribb, A., & Gerwitz, S. (2003). Towards a sociology of just practices: an analysis of plural conceptions of justice. In C. Vincent (Ed.). *Social Justice in Education* (pp. 15-29). Routledge,

[106] Klenowski, V. (2009). Australian indigenous students: addressing equity issues in assessment. *Teaching Education, 20*(1), 77-93. https://doi. org/10.1080/10476210802681741

[107] Elwood, J., & Lundy, L. (2010). Revisioning assessment though a children's rights approach: implications for policy, process and practice. *Research Papers in Education, 25*(3), 335-353. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2010.

[108] Katusic, S. K., Colligan, R. C., Barbaresi, W. J., Schaid, D. J., & Jacobsen, S. J. (2001). Incidence of reading disability in a populationbased birth cohort, 1976-1982, Rochester, Minn. *Mayo Clin Proc*, 76, 1081-1092. https://doi.org/

[109] Rao, S., Raj, A., Ramanathan, V., Sharma, A., Dhar, M., Thatkar, P. V., & Pal, R. (2017). Prevalence of dyslexia among school children in Mysore. *International Journal of Medical Science and Public Health*, *6*(1), 159- 164. https://www.researchgate.net/ profile/Murali\_Dhar4/publication/ 311715972\_Prevalence\_of\_dyslexia\_ among\_school\_children\_in\_Mysore/ links/585788ff08aeff086bfcaf8f/ Prevalence-of-dyslexia-among-school-

processor

Falmer.

498150

10.4065/76.11.1081

children-in-Mysore.pdf

[98] Costarelli, V., & Patsai, A. (2012). Academic examination stress increases disordered eating symptomatology in female university students. *Eating and Weight Disorders-Studies on Anorexia, Bulimia and Obesity*, *17*(3), e164-e169. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03325343

[99] Oaten, M., & Cheng, K. (2005). Academic examination stress impairs self–control. *Journal of social and clinical psychology*, *24*(2), 254-279. https://doi. org/10.1521/jscp.24.2.254.62276

[100] Xiang, Z., Tan, S., Kang, Q., Zhang, B., & Zhu, L. (2019). Longitudinal effects of examination stress on psychological well-being and a possible mediating role of selfesteem in Chinese high school students. *Journal of Happiness Studies*, *20*(1), 283-305. https://doi.org/10.1007/

[101] Gardner, J., Holmes, B., & Leitch, R. (2009). *Assessment and Social Justice: a Futurelab literature review, Report 16.* Bristol: Futurelab. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/322896490\_Assessment\_

[102] Crisp, V., Johnson, M., & Novacovic, N. (2012). The effects of features of examination questions on the performance of students with dyslexia. *British Educational Research Journal, 38*(5), 813-839. DOI: https://doi. org/10.1080/01411926.2011.584964

[103] Falzon, R. & Camilleri J. (2014) Request for oral examinations at the SEC and MATSEC levels. National petition presented to the Maltese Parliament. https://www.change.

s10902-017-9948-9

and\_Social\_ Justice

**24**

[110] Richardson, J. T. E., & Wydell, T. N. (2003). The representation and attainment of students with dyslexia in UK higher education. *Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal*, 16, 475-503. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024261927214

[111] Stampoltzis, A., & Polychronopoulou, S. (2008). Dyslexia in Greek higher education: A study of incidence, policy and provision. *Journal of Research in Special Education Needs*, 8(1), 37-46. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1471-3802.2008.00100.x

[112] Mortimore, T., & Crozier, W. R. (2006). Dyslexia and difficulties with study skills in higher education. *Studies in higher education*, *31*(2), 235-251. https://doi. org/10.1080/03075070600572173

[113] Richardson, J. T. (2015). Academic attainment in students with dyslexia in distance education. *Dyslexia*, *21*(4), 323- 337. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1502

[114] University of Malta (2020). *Statistical report secondary education certificate examinations 2019.* https:// www.um.edu.mt/\_\_data/assets/ pdf\_file/0007/438694/ SECStatReport 2019FINAL.pdf

[115] Olofsson, A., Taube, K., & Ahl, A. (2015). Academic achievement of university students with dyslexia. *Dyslexia*, 21, 338-349. https://doi. org/10.1002/dys.1517

[116] MacCullagh, L., Bosanquet, A., & Badcock, N. A. (2017). University students with dyslexia: A qualitative exploratory study of learning practices, challenges and strategies. Dyslexia, 23(1), 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1544

[117] Byrne, C. (2018) *Why do dyslexic students do worse at university?* The Guardian. https://www. theguardian. com/education/2018/dec/06/whydo-dyslexic-students-do-worse-atuniversity

[118] Hall, L. M., & Belch, H. A. (2000). Setting the context: Reconsidering the principles of full participation and meaningful access for students with disabilities. *New Directions for Student Services*, 91, 5-17. https://doi. org/10.1002/ss.9101

[119] University of Oxford (n.d.) *Guidance for disabled applicants.* Available from https://www.ox.ac.uk/ admissions/undergraduate/applyingto-oxford/guidance-disabled-applicants [Accessed 2020-09-24]

[120] Henderson, K. (2001). 2001 college freshmen with disabilities: A biennial statistical profile (pp. 42). Washington, DC: Heath Resource Center.

[121] Gerber, P. J., & Brown, D. (1997). *Learning disabilities and employment*. Pro-Ed.

[122] Cameron, H., & Nunkoosing, K. (2012). Lecturer perspectives on dyslexia and dyslexic students within one faculty at one university in England. *Teaching in Higher Education*, *17*(3), 341-352. https://doi.org/10.1080/135625 17.2011.641002

[123] Greenbaum, B., Graham, S., & Scales, W. (1996). Adults with learning disabilities: Occupational and social status after college. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 167-173. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 002221949602900206

[124] Callens, M., Tops, W., & Brysbaert, M. (2012). Cognitive profile of students who enter higher education with an indication of dyslexia. *Plos One*, 7(6e38081). https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0038081

[125] Deacon, S. H., Cook, K., & Parrila, R. (2012). Identifying high-functioning dyslexics: is self-report of early reading problems enough?. *Annals of Dyslexia*, *62*(2), 120-134. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/ s11881-012-0068-2

[126] Kirby, J. R., Silvestri, R., Allingham, B. H., Parrila, R., & La Fave, C. B. (2008). Learning strategies and study approaches of postsecondary students with dyslexia. *Journal of Learning Disabilities*, 41(1), 85-96. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022219407311040

[127] Pino, M., & Mortari, L. (2014). The inclusion of students with dyslexia in higher education: A systematic review using narrative synthesis. Dyslexia. 20(4), 346-69. https://doi.org/10.1002/ dys.1484

[128] Simmons, F., & Singleton, C. (2000). The reading comprehension abilities of dyslexic students in higher education. *Dyslexia*, 6, 178-192. https:// doi.org/10.1002/1099-0909 (200007/09) 6:3<178::AID-DYS171>3.0.CO;2-9

[129] Erskine, J. M., & Seymour, P. H. K. (2005). Proximal analysis of developmental dyslexia in adulthood: The cognitive mosaic model. *Journal of Educational Psychology*, 97(3), 406-424. https://doi. org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.406

[130] Connelly, V., Campbell, S., MacLean, M., & Barnes, J. (2006). Contribution of lower-order letter and word fluency skills to written composition of college students with and without dyslexia. *Developmental Neuropsychology*, 29(1), 175-196. https:// doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2901\_9

[131] Galbraith, D., Baaijen, V., Smith-Spark, J., & Torrance, M. (2012). The effects of dyslexia on the writing processes of students in higher education. Chapter 2.02.06 In M. Torrance, D. Alamargot, M. Castello, F. Ganier, O. Kruse, A. Mangen, L. Tolchinsky, & L. Van Waes (Eds): *Learning to write effectively: Current trends in European research*. Emerald Group Publishing.

[132] Sterling, C. M., Farmer, M., Riddick, B., Morgan, S., & Matthews, C. (1997). Adult dyslexic writing. *Dyslexia*,

4, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1002/ (SICI)1099-0909(199803)4:1<1::AID-DYS87>3.0.CO;2-F

[133] British Dyslexia Association (n.d.) *Modern Foreign Languages*. Available from https:// www.bdadyslexia.org. uk/advice/educators/teaching-forneurodiversity/modern-foreignlanguages [Accessed 2020-09-15]

[134] Block, D., & Cameron, D. (Eds.). (2002). *Globalization and language teaching*. Routledge.

[135] Lawes, S. (2000). Why learn a foreign language?. In K. Field (Ed.) *Issues in modern foreign languages teaching*, 41-51. Routledge Farmer

[136] Merritt, A. (2013). Why learn a foreign language? Benefits of bilingualism. *The Telegraph*. https:// www.telegraph.co.uk/ education/2018/03/27/learn-foreignlanguage-benefits-bilingualism/

[137] European Parliament (2019). Multilingualism: The language of the European Union. Available from: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/ RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/642207/ EPRS\_BRI (2019)642207\_EN.pdf

[138] Fuller, M., Healey, M., Bradley, A., & Hall, T. (2004). Barriers to learning: A systematic study of the experience of disabled students in one university. *Studies in Higher Education*, 29(3), 303- 318. https://doi.org/10.1080/0307507041 0001682592

[139] Collinson, C., & Penketh, C. (2010). 'Sit in the corner and don't eat the crayons': Postgraduates with dyslexia and the dominant 'lexic' discourse. *Disability & Society*, 25(1), 7-19. https://doi. org/10.1080/09687590903363274

[140] Hutcheon, E. J., & Wolbring, G. (2012). Voices of "disabled" postsecondary students: Examining higher

**27**

1585420

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

doi.org/10.1037/a0027002

j.1467-9604.2010.01465.x

sbspro.2012.06.798

vandana/10011989354

[142] Goode, J. (2006). 'Managing' disability: Early experiences of university students with disabilities. *Disability & Society*, 22(1), 35-48. https://doi. org/10.1080/09687590601056204

[143] Olofsson, A., Ahl, A., & Taube, K. (2012). Learning and study strategies in university students with dyslexia: Implications for teaching. *Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences*, 47, 1184-1193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

[144] Sharma, V. (2018). Soft skills: An employability enabler. *IUP Journal of Soft Skills*, *12*(2), 25-32. https:// www.econbiz.de/Record/soft-skillsan-employability-enabler-sharma-

[145] Majid, S., Eapen, C. M., Aung, E. M., & Oo, K. T. (2019). The Importance of Soft Skills for Employability and Career Development: Students and Employers' Perspectives. *IUP Journal of Soft Skills*, *13*(4), 7-39. https://searchproquest-com.ejournals.um.edu.mt/ docview/ 2330760547? accountid=27934

[146] Succi, C., & Canovi, M. (2020). Soft skills to enhance graduate employability: comparing students and employers' perceptions. *Studies in Higher Education*, *45*(9), 1834-1847. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.

[147] Theodoropoulou, S. (2010). Skills and education for growth and well-being in Europe 2020: are we

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

on the right path. *EPC Issue Paper*, *61*. https://www.researchgate.net/ profile/Sotiria\_ Theodoropoulou2/ publication/ 267574715\_Skills\_and\_ education\_for\_growth\_and\_welleing\_in\_Europe\_2020\_are\_we\_on\_the\_

[148] Brownlie, F., Feniak, C., & Schnellert, L. (2006). *Student diversity: Classroom strategies to meet the learning* 

*needs of all students*. Pembroke

[149] Florian, L. (2015). Inclusive Pedagogy: A transformative approach to individual differences but can it help reduce educational inequalities. *Scottish Educational Review*, *47*(1), 5-14. https:// www.scotedreview.org.uk/ media/ microsites/scottish-educational-review/ other-docs/2015\_47-1\_ May\_03\_Florian.

[150] Lloyd, C. (2008). Removing barriers to achievement: a strategy

[151] Schnotz, W. (2002). Towards an integrated view of learning from text and visual displays. *Educational Psychology Review*, 14, 101-120. https:// doi.org/10.1023/A:1013136727916

[152] Kerr, S., & Baker, M. (2013). Six practical principles for inclusive curriculum design. In B. Tynan, J. Willems, & R. James (Eds.), *Outlooks and opportunities in blended and distance learning* (pp. 74-88). IGI

[153] Wankat, P. (2002). *The effective efficient professor: Teaching, scholarship* 

[154] Milman, N. B. (2012). The flipped classroom strategy: What is it and how can it best be used? *Distance Learning*,

*and service*. Allyn and Bacon.

for inclusion or exclusion? *International Journal of Inclusive Education*, *12*(2), 221-236. https://doi. org/10.1080/13603110600871413

77/07419325030240060501

Publishers Limited.https://doi.org/10.11

right\_path

pdf

Global.

education "disability" policy using an ableism lens. *Journal of Diversity in Higher Education*, 5(1), 39-49. https//

[141] Gibson, S., & Kendall, L. (2010). Stories from school: Dyslexia and learners' voices on factors impacting on achievement. *Support for Learning*, 25(4), 187-193. https://doi.org/10.1111/ *Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

dys.1484

[126] Kirby, J. R., Silvestri, R., Allingham, B. H., Parrila, R., & La Fave, C. B. (2008). Learning strategies and study approaches of postsecondary students with dyslexia. *Journal of Learning Disabilities*, 41(1), 85-96. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022219407311040

4, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1002/ (SICI)1099-0909(199803)4:1<1::AID-

[133] British Dyslexia Association (n.d.) *Modern Foreign Languages*. Available from https:// www.bdadyslexia.org. uk/advice/educators/teaching-forneurodiversity/modern-foreignlanguages [Accessed 2020-09-15]

[134] Block, D., & Cameron, D. (Eds.). (2002). *Globalization and language* 

[135] Lawes, S. (2000). Why learn a foreign language?. In K. Field (Ed.) *Issues in modern foreign languages teaching*, 41-51. Routledge Farmer

[136] Merritt, A. (2013). Why learn a foreign language? Benefits of bilingualism. *The Telegraph*. https:// www.telegraph.co.uk/ education/2018/03/27/learn-foreignlanguage-benefits-bilingualism/

[137] European Parliament (2019). Multilingualism: The language of the European Union. Available from: https://www.europarl.europa.eu/ RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/642207/ EPRS\_BRI (2019)642207\_EN.pdf

[138] Fuller, M., Healey, M., Bradley, A., & Hall, T. (2004). Barriers to learning: A systematic study of the experience of disabled students in one university. *Studies in Higher Education*, 29(3), 303- 318. https://doi.org/10.1080/0307507041

[139] Collinson, C., & Penketh, C. (2010). 'Sit in the corner and don't eat the crayons': Postgraduates with dyslexia and the dominant 'lexic' discourse. *Disability & Society*, 25(1), 7-19. https://doi. org/10.1080/09687590903363274

[140] Hutcheon, E. J., & Wolbring, G. (2012). Voices of "disabled" postsecondary students: Examining higher

0001682592

DYS87>3.0.CO;2-F

*teaching*. Routledge.

[127] Pino, M., & Mortari, L. (2014). The inclusion of students with dyslexia in higher education: A systematic review using narrative synthesis. Dyslexia. 20(4), 346-69. https://doi.org/10.1002/

[128] Simmons, F., & Singleton, C. (2000). The reading comprehension abilities of dyslexic students in higher education. *Dyslexia*, 6, 178-192. https:// doi.org/10.1002/1099-0909 (200007/09)

6:3<178::AID-DYS171>3.0.CO;2-9

[129] Erskine, J. M., & Seymour, P. H. K. (2005). Proximal analysis of developmental dyslexia in adulthood: The cognitive mosaic model. *Journal of Educational* 

[130] Connelly, V., Campbell, S., MacLean, M., & Barnes, J. (2006). Contribution of lower-order letter and word fluency skills to written composition of college students with and without dyslexia. *Developmental Neuropsychology*, 29(1), 175-196. https:// doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2901\_9

[131] Galbraith, D., Baaijen, V., Smith-Spark, J., & Torrance, M. (2012). The effects of dyslexia on the writing processes of students in higher education. Chapter 2.02.06 In M. Torrance, D. Alamargot, M. Castello, F. Ganier, O. Kruse, A. Mangen, L. Tolchinsky, & L. Van Waes (Eds): *Learning to write effectively: Current trends in European research*. Emerald Group Publishing.

[132] Sterling, C. M., Farmer, M.,

Riddick, B., Morgan, S., & Matthews, C. (1997). Adult dyslexic writing. *Dyslexia*,

*Psychology*, 97(3), 406-424. https://doi. org/10.1037/0022-0663.97.3.406

**26**

education "disability" policy using an ableism lens. *Journal of Diversity in Higher Education*, 5(1), 39-49. https// doi.org/10.1037/a0027002

[141] Gibson, S., & Kendall, L. (2010). Stories from school: Dyslexia and learners' voices on factors impacting on achievement. *Support for Learning*, 25(4), 187-193. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1467-9604.2010.01465.x

[142] Goode, J. (2006). 'Managing' disability: Early experiences of university students with disabilities. *Disability & Society*, 22(1), 35-48. https://doi. org/10.1080/09687590601056204

[143] Olofsson, A., Ahl, A., & Taube, K. (2012). Learning and study strategies in university students with dyslexia: Implications for teaching. *Procedia Social and Behavioural Sciences*, 47, 1184-1193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. sbspro.2012.06.798

[144] Sharma, V. (2018). Soft skills: An employability enabler. *IUP Journal of Soft Skills*, *12*(2), 25-32. https:// www.econbiz.de/Record/soft-skillsan-employability-enabler-sharmavandana/10011989354

[145] Majid, S., Eapen, C. M., Aung, E. M., & Oo, K. T. (2019). The Importance of Soft Skills for Employability and Career Development: Students and Employers' Perspectives. *IUP Journal of Soft Skills*, *13*(4), 7-39. https://searchproquest-com.ejournals.um.edu.mt/ docview/ 2330760547? accountid=27934

[146] Succi, C., & Canovi, M. (2020). Soft skills to enhance graduate employability: comparing students and employers' perceptions. *Studies in Higher Education*, *45*(9), 1834-1847. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019. 1585420

[147] Theodoropoulou, S. (2010). Skills and education for growth and well-being in Europe 2020: are we

on the right path. *EPC Issue Paper*, *61*. https://www.researchgate.net/ profile/Sotiria\_ Theodoropoulou2/ publication/ 267574715\_Skills\_and\_ education\_for\_growth\_and\_welleing\_in\_Europe\_2020\_are\_we\_on\_the\_ right\_path

[148] Brownlie, F., Feniak, C., & Schnellert, L. (2006). *Student diversity: Classroom strategies to meet the learning needs of all students*. Pembroke Publishers Limited.https://doi.org/10.11 77/07419325030240060501

[149] Florian, L. (2015). Inclusive Pedagogy: A transformative approach to individual differences but can it help reduce educational inequalities. *Scottish Educational Review*, *47*(1), 5-14. https:// www.scotedreview.org.uk/ media/ microsites/scottish-educational-review/ other-docs/2015\_47-1\_ May\_03\_Florian. pdf

[150] Lloyd, C. (2008). Removing barriers to achievement: a strategy for inclusion or exclusion? *International Journal of Inclusive Education*, *12*(2), 221-236. https://doi. org/10.1080/13603110600871413

[151] Schnotz, W. (2002). Towards an integrated view of learning from text and visual displays. *Educational Psychology Review*, 14, 101-120. https:// doi.org/10.1023/A:1013136727916

[152] Kerr, S., & Baker, M. (2013). Six practical principles for inclusive curriculum design. In B. Tynan, J. Willems, & R. James (Eds.), *Outlooks and opportunities in blended and distance learning* (pp. 74-88). IGI Global.

[153] Wankat, P. (2002). *The effective efficient professor: Teaching, scholarship and service*. Allyn and Bacon.

[154] Milman, N. B. (2012). The flipped classroom strategy: What is it and how can it best be used? *Distance Learning*,

9(3), 85-7. https://tojdel.net/journals/ tojdel/articles/v03i01/v03i01-04.pdf

[155] Charlton, J. I. (2000). *Nothing about us without us: Disability oppression and empowerment*. University of California Press

[156] Nunan, T., George, R., & McCausland, H. (2000). Inclusive education in universities: Why is it important and how might it be achieved. *International Journal of Inclusive Education*, 4(1), 63-88. https:// doi.org/10.1080/136031100284920

[157] McNulty, M. A. (2003) Dyslexia and the life course. *Journal of Learning Disabilities,* 36(4)*,* 363-381. https://doi. org/10.1177/00222194030360040701

[158] Singer, E. (2005). The strategies adopted by Dutch children with dyslexia to maintain their self-esteem when teased at school. *Journal of Learning Disabilities,* 38, 411-423. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/00222194050380050401

[159] Khan, M. (1964). Ego distortion, cumulative trauma, and the role of reconstruction in the analytic situation. *International Journal of Psycho-Analysis*, *45*, 272-279. https://www.pep-web.org/ document.php?id=IJP.045.0272A

[160] Snyder, L. A., Carmichael, J. S., Blackwell, L. V., Cleveland, J. N., & Thornton, G. C. III. (2010). Perceptions of discrimination and justice among employees with disabilities. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 22, 5-19. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10672-009-9107-5

[161] Barga, N. K. (1996). Students with learning disabilities in education: Managing a disability. *Journal of Learning Disabilities*, 29, 413-421. https://doi. org/10.1177/002221949602900409

[162] Rao, S. (2004). Faculty attitudes and students with disabilities in higher education: A literature review. *College Student Journal*, 38(2), 191-198. https:// go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE% 7CA119741925

[163] Bohdanowicz, K. (2015). How to End the Shame of Dyslexia? Education. *The Times Educational Supplement*, *5133*, 46. https://www.tes.com/news/ how-end-shame-dyslexia-education

[164] Nalavany, B. A., Carawan, L. W., & Sauber, S. (2015). Adults with dyslexia, an invisible disability: The mediational role of concealment on perceived family support and self-esteem. *The British Journal of Social Work*, *45*(2), 568-586. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bct152

[165] Mortimore, T., & Crozier, W. R. (2007). Dyslexia and difficulties with study skills in higher education. *Studies in Higher Education*, 31(2), 235-251. https:// doi.org/10.1080/03075070600572173

[166] Falzon, R., & Camilleri, S. (2010). Dyslexia and the school counsellor: A Maltese case study. *Counselling and Psychotherapy Research*, *10*(4), 307-315. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 14733140903370228

[167] Gerber, P. J., & Reiff, H. B. (1991). *Speaking for themselves: Ethnographic interviews with adults with learning disabilities* (No. 9). Univ of Michigan Press. DOI: 10.3998/mpub.9690752

[168] Gerber, P. J., Reiff, H. B. & Ginsberg, R. (1996) Reframing the learning disabilities experience.*Journal of Learning Disabilities,* 29(1)*,* 98. https://doi. org/10.1177/002221949602900112

[169] Frymier, A. B., Wanzer M. B. (2003). Examining Differences in Perceptions of Students' Communication with Professors: A Comparison of Students with and without Disabilities. *Communication Quarterly* 51 (2), 174-191. https://doi. org/10.1080/01463370309370149

**29**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

disabilities. Pro-Ed.

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

[170] Reiff, H. B.; Gerber, P. & Ginsberg, R. (1997) Exceeding expectations: Successful adults with learning

[177] Powell, J. J. (2013). From ableism to accessibility in the universal design university. *Review of Disability Studies: An International Journal*, *8*(4), 33-45.

[178] Hehir, T. (2017). How Did You Get to Harvard?. *Educational Leadership*, *74*(7), 36-40. Available from https://

[179] Bianco, M. (2005). The effects of disability labels on special education and general education teachers' referrals for gifted programs. Learning Disability Quarterly, 28(4), 285-293. https://doi.

[180] Solvang, P. (2007). Developing an ambivalence perspective on medical labelling in education: case dyslexia. *International studies in sociology of education*, *17*(1-2), 79-94. https://doi. org/10.1080/09620210701433779

[181] Taylor, L., Hume, I., & Welsh, N. (2010). Labelling and Self-Esteem: The impact of using specific vs. generic labels. Educational

Psychology, 30(2), 191-202. https://doi. org/10.1080/01443410903494478

[182] Riddick, B. (1996). Living with dyslexia: The social and emotional consequences of specific learning

[183] Kendall, L. (2018). Supporting students with disabilities within a UK university: Lecturer perspectives. *Innovations in Education and Teaching International*, *55*(6), 694-703. https:// doi/full/10.1080/14703297.2017.1299630

[184] Ryder, D., & Norwich, B. (2019). UK higher education lecturers' perspectives of dyslexia, dyslexic

students and related disability provision. *Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs*, *19*(3), 161-172. https://doi/ epdf/10.1111/1471-3802.12438

[185] Parrila, R., Georgiou, G., & Crokett, J. (2007). University students with a significant history of reading

difficulties. Routledge

eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1138116

org/10.2307/4126967

[171] Duchane, K., Leung, R., & Coulter-Kern, R. (2008, October). Pre-service Physical Educator Attitude Toward Teaching Students with Disabilities. Clinical Kinesiology (Online) 62(3), 16-20. https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymo

us?id=GALE%7CA192975563

[172] Upton, T. D., Harper, D. C., & Wadsworth, J. S. (2005). Postsecondary

attitudes towards persons with disabilities: A comparison of college students with and without disabilities. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counselling, 36 (3), 24-31. https://doi.

org/10.1891/0047-2220.36.3.24

25030240060501

[173] Field, S., Sarver, M. & Shaw, S. (2003). Self Determination: A key to success in postsecondary education for students with learning disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 339-349. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193

[174] Mishna, F. (2003). Learning disabilities and bullying: Double jeopardy. Journal of Learning

1177/00222194030360040501

[175] Hornstra, L., Denessen, E., Voeten, M., van den Bergh, L., & Bakker, J. (2010). Teacher attitudes toward dyslexia: Effects on teacher expectations and the academic achievement of students with dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(6), 515-529. https://doi.

org/10.1177/0022219409355479

[176] Higgins, E. L., Raskind, M. H., Goldberg, R. J., & Herman, K. L. (2002). Stages of acceptance of a learning disability: The impact of labelling. Learning Disability Quarterly, 25, 3-18. https://doi.

org/10.2307/1511187

Disabilities, 36, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.

### *Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

9(3), 85-7. https://tojdel.net/journals/ tojdel/articles/v03i01/v03i01-04.pdf

education: A literature review. *College Student Journal*, 38(2), 191-198. https:// go.gale.com/ps/anonymous?id=GALE%

[163] Bohdanowicz, K. (2015). How to End the Shame of Dyslexia? Education. *The Times Educational Supplement*, *5133*, 46. https://www.tes.com/news/ how-end-shame-dyslexia-education

[164] Nalavany, B. A., Carawan, L. W., & Sauber, S. (2015). Adults with dyslexia, an invisible disability: The mediational role of concealment on perceived family support and self-esteem. *The British Journal of Social Work*, *45*(2), 568-586. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bct152

[165] Mortimore, T., & Crozier, W. R. (2007). Dyslexia and difficulties with study skills in higher education. *Studies in Higher Education*, 31(2), 235-251. https:// doi.org/10.1080/03075070600572173

[166] Falzon, R., & Camilleri, S. (2010). Dyslexia and the school counsellor: A Maltese case study. *Counselling and Psychotherapy Research*, *10*(4), 307-315. https://doi.org/10.1080/

[167] Gerber, P. J., & Reiff, H. B. (1991). *Speaking for themselves: Ethnographic interviews with adults with learning disabilities* (No. 9). Univ of Michigan Press. DOI: 10.3998/mpub.9690752

[168] Gerber, P. J., Reiff, H. B. & Ginsberg, R. (1996) Reframing

[169] Frymier, A. B., Wanzer M. B. (2003). Examining Differences in Perceptions of Students'

Communication with Professors: A Comparison of Students with and without Disabilities. *Communication Quarterly* 51 (2), 174-191. https://doi. org/10.1080/01463370309370149

the learning disabilities experience.*Journal of Learning Disabilities,* 29(1)*,* 98. https://doi. org/10.1177/002221949602900112

14733140903370228

7CA119741925

[155] Charlton, J. I. (2000). *Nothing about us without us: Disability oppression* 

*and empowerment*. University of

[156] Nunan, T., George, R., & McCausland, H. (2000). Inclusive education in universities: Why is it important and how might it be achieved. *International Journal of Inclusive Education*, 4(1), 63-88. https:// doi.org/10.1080/136031100284920

[157] McNulty, M. A. (2003) Dyslexia and the life course. *Journal of Learning Disabilities,* 36(4)*,* 363-381. https://doi. org/10.1177/00222194030360040701

[158] Singer, E. (2005). The strategies adopted by Dutch children with dyslexia to maintain their self-esteem when teased at school. *Journal of Learning Disabilities,* 38, 411-423. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/00222194050380050401

[159] Khan, M. (1964). Ego distortion, cumulative trauma, and the role of reconstruction in the analytic situation. *International Journal of Psycho-Analysis*, *45*, 272-279. https://www.pep-web.org/ document.php?id=IJP.045.0272A

[160] Snyder, L. A., Carmichael, J. S., Blackwell, L. V., Cleveland, J. N., & Thornton, G. C. III. (2010). Perceptions of discrimination and justice among employees with disabilities. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 22, 5-19. https://doi.org/10.1007/

[161] Barga, N. K. (1996). Students with learning disabilities in education: Managing a disability. *Journal of Learning Disabilities*,

org/10.1177/002221949602900409

[162] Rao, S. (2004). Faculty attitudes and students with disabilities in higher

s10672-009-9107-5

29, 413-421. https://doi.

California Press

**28**

[170] Reiff, H. B.; Gerber, P. & Ginsberg, R. (1997) Exceeding expectations: Successful adults with learning disabilities. Pro-Ed.

[171] Duchane, K., Leung, R., & Coulter-Kern, R. (2008, October). Pre-service Physical Educator Attitude Toward Teaching Students with Disabilities. Clinical Kinesiology (Online) 62(3), 16-20. https://go.gale.com/ps/anonymo us?id=GALE%7CA192975563

[172] Upton, T. D., Harper, D. C., & Wadsworth, J. S. (2005). Postsecondary attitudes towards persons with disabilities: A comparison of college students with and without disabilities. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counselling, 36 (3), 24-31. https://doi. org/10.1891/0047-2220.36.3.24

[173] Field, S., Sarver, M. & Shaw, S. (2003). Self Determination: A key to success in postsecondary education for students with learning disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 24, 339-349. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193 25030240060501

[174] Mishna, F. (2003). Learning disabilities and bullying: Double jeopardy. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36, 1-15. https://doi.org/10. 1177/00222194030360040501

[175] Hornstra, L., Denessen, E., Voeten, M., van den Bergh, L., & Bakker, J. (2010). Teacher attitudes toward dyslexia: Effects on teacher expectations and the academic achievement of students with dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43(6), 515-529. https://doi. org/10.1177/0022219409355479

[176] Higgins, E. L., Raskind, M. H., Goldberg, R. J., & Herman, K. L. (2002). Stages of acceptance of a learning disability: The impact of labelling. Learning Disability Quarterly, 25, 3-18. https://doi. org/10.2307/1511187

[177] Powell, J. J. (2013). From ableism to accessibility in the universal design university. *Review of Disability Studies: An International Journal*, *8*(4), 33-45.

[178] Hehir, T. (2017). How Did You Get to Harvard?. *Educational Leadership*, *74*(7), 36-40. Available from https:// eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1138116

[179] Bianco, M. (2005). The effects of disability labels on special education and general education teachers' referrals for gifted programs. Learning Disability Quarterly, 28(4), 285-293. https://doi. org/10.2307/4126967

[180] Solvang, P. (2007). Developing an ambivalence perspective on medical labelling in education: case dyslexia. *International studies in sociology of education*, *17*(1-2), 79-94. https://doi. org/10.1080/09620210701433779

[181] Taylor, L., Hume, I., & Welsh, N. (2010). Labelling and Self-Esteem: The impact of using specific vs. generic labels. Educational Psychology, 30(2), 191-202. https://doi. org/10.1080/01443410903494478

[182] Riddick, B. (1996). Living with dyslexia: The social and emotional consequences of specific learning difficulties. Routledge

[183] Kendall, L. (2018). Supporting students with disabilities within a UK university: Lecturer perspectives. *Innovations in Education and Teaching International*, *55*(6), 694-703. https:// doi/full/10.1080/14703297.2017.1299630

[184] Ryder, D., & Norwich, B. (2019). UK higher education lecturers' perspectives of dyslexia, dyslexic students and related disability provision. *Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs*, *19*(3), 161-172. https://doi/ epdf/10.1111/1471-3802.12438

[185] Parrila, R., Georgiou, G., & Crokett, J. (2007). University students with a significant history of reading

difficulties: What is and is not compensated? Exceptionality Education Canada, 17, 195-220. https://ir.lib.uwo. ca/eei/vol17/iss2/4/

[186] Dale, M. & Taylor, B. (2001) How adult learners make sense of their dyslexia. *Disability &Society,* 16(7)*,* 997-1008. https://doi. org/10.1080/09687590120097872

[187] Schmar-Dobler, E. (2003). Reading on the Internet: The link between literacy and technology. *Journal of adolescent & adult literacy*, *47*(1), 80-85. Available from https://www.jstor.org/ stable/40026906

[188] Ertmer, P. A., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T., & Tondeur, J. (2015). Teachers' beliefs and uses of technology to support 21st-century teaching and learning. *International handbook of research on teacher beliefs*, 403-418. Available from http://hdl.handle. net/1854/LU-5815883

[189] Lysenko, L. V., & Abrami, P. C. (2014). Promoting reading comprehension with the use of technology. *Computers & Education*, *75*, 162-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. compedu.2014.01.010

[190] Harnad, S. (1991). Post-Gutenberg galaxy: The fourth revolution in the means of production of knowledge. *Public-access computer systems review*, *2*(1), 39-53. http://cogprints.org/1580/1/ harnad91.postgutenberg.html

[191] Ok, M. W., & Rao, K. (2019). Digital tools for the inclusive classroom: Google chrome as assistive and instructional technology. *Journal of Special Education Technology*, 34(3), 204-211. https://doi. org/10.1177/0162643419841546

[192] Warschauer, M., & Matuchniak, T. (2010). New technology and digital worlds: Analyzing evidence of equity in access, use, and

outcomes. *Review of research in education*, *34*(1), 179-225. https://doi. org/10.3102/0091732x09349791

[193] Castell, M. (1998). The End of Millenium, Vol. 3 of the Information Age.

[194] Castells, M. 1998. *End of Millenium.* Vol. 3 of *Information age: Economy, society, and culture*, Blackwell. Available from http://citeseerx.ist.psu. edu/viewdoc/download?doi= 10.1.1.457. 4928&rep=rep1&type=pdf

[195] The Economist (2020, August 8-14). Briefing: COVID-19 and College. Uncanny University *The Economist,* 14-16. Also retrievable from https://www.economist.com/ briefing/2020/08/08/ covid-19-couldpush-some-universities-over-the-brink

[196] The Economist (2020), August 8-14), The absent student. *The Economist,* 7. Also retrievable from https://www.economist.com/ weeklyedition/2020-08-08

[197] Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. *On the horizon*, *9*(5). https://doi. org/10.1108/10748120110424816.

[198] Kennedy, G. E., Judd, T. S., Churchward, A., Gray, K., & Krause, K.-L. (2008). First year students' experiences with technology: Are they really digital natives? *Australasian Journal of Educational Technology*, *24*(1). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.1233

[199] UNESCO (n.d.) *Literacy.* Available from https://en.unesco.org/themes/ literacy. [Accessed 2020/10/16]

[200] Clinton (1994, August 24). Statement on the Observance of International Literacy Day August 24, 1994. Authenticate US Government Information. https://www.govinfo.gov/ content/pkg/WCPD-1994-08-29/pdf/ WCPD-1994-08-29-Pg1713.pdf

**31**

*Dyslexia and Academic Life*

*DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

Dyslexics. J Psychol Psychother 6: 238.

[201] Alexander-Passe N (2016). The School's Role in Creating Successful and Unsuccessful

doi:10.4172/2161-0487.1000238

*Dyslexia and Academic Life DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.94577*

*Dyslexia*

difficulties: What is and is not

[186] Dale, M. & Taylor, B. (2001) How adult learners make sense of their dyslexia. *Disability &Society,* 16(7)*,* 997-1008. https://doi. org/10.1080/09687590120097872

ca/eei/vol17/iss2/4/

stable/40026906

net/1854/LU-5815883

compedu.2014.01.010

[189] Lysenko, L. V., & Abrami, P. C. (2014). Promoting reading comprehension with the use of technology. *Computers & Education*, *75*, 162-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

harnad91.postgutenberg.html

[191] Ok, M. W., & Rao, K. (2019). Digital tools for the inclusive classroom:

[192] Warschauer, M., & Matuchniak, T. (2010). New technology and digital worlds: Analyzing evidence of equity in access, use, and

Google chrome as assistive and instructional technology. *Journal of Special Education Technology*, 34(3), 204-211. https://doi. org/10.1177/0162643419841546

[190] Harnad, S. (1991). Post-Gutenberg galaxy: The fourth revolution in the means of production of knowledge. *Public-access computer systems review*, *2*(1), 39-53. http://cogprints.org/1580/1/

compensated? Exceptionality Education Canada, 17, 195-220. https://ir.lib.uwo.

outcomes. *Review of research in education*, *34*(1), 179-225. https://doi. org/10.3102/0091732x09349791

[193] Castell, M. (1998). The End of Millenium, Vol. 3 of the Information Age.

[194] Castells, M. 1998. *End of Millenium.* Vol. 3 of *Information age: Economy, society, and culture*, Blackwell. Available from http://citeseerx.ist.psu. edu/viewdoc/download?doi= 10.1.1.457.

4928&rep=rep1&type=pdf

[196] The Economist (2020), August 8-14), The absent student. *The Economist,* 7. Also retrievable from https://www.economist.com/

weeklyedition/2020-08-08

[197] Prensky, M. (2001). Digital natives, digital immigrants. *On the horizon*, *9*(5). https://doi. org/10.1108/10748120110424816.

[198] Kennedy, G. E., Judd, T. S., Churchward, A., Gray, K., & Krause, K.-L. (2008). First year students' experiences with technology: Are they really digital natives? *Australasian Journal of Educational Technology*, *24*(1). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.1233

[199] UNESCO (n.d.) *Literacy.* Available from https://en.unesco.org/themes/ literacy. [Accessed 2020/10/16]

[200] Clinton (1994, August 24). Statement on the Observance of International Literacy Day August 24, 1994. Authenticate US Government Information. https://www.govinfo.gov/ content/pkg/WCPD-1994-08-29/pdf/ WCPD-1994-08-29-Pg1713.pdf

[195] The Economist (2020, August 8-14). Briefing: COVID-19 and College. Uncanny University *The Economist,* 14-16. Also retrievable from https://www.economist.com/ briefing/2020/08/08/ covid-19-couldpush-some-universities-over-the-brink

[187] Schmar-Dobler, E. (2003). Reading on the Internet: The link between literacy and technology. *Journal of adolescent & adult literacy*, *47*(1), 80-85. Available from https://www.jstor.org/

[188] Ertmer, P. A., Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A. T., & Tondeur, J. (2015). Teachers' beliefs and uses of technology to support 21st-century teaching and learning. *International handbook of research on teacher beliefs*, 403-418. Available from http://hdl.handle.

**30**

[201] Alexander-Passe N (2016). The School's Role in Creating Successful and Unsuccessful Dyslexics. J Psychol Psychother 6: 238. doi:10.4172/2161-0487.1000238

**33**

**Chapter 2**

**Abstract**

phonological intervention

**1. Introduction**

Effects of a Phonological

*Urs Ribary and Lawrence M. Ward*

Intervention on EEG Connectivity

We examined the brain networks and oscillatory dynamics, inferred from EEG recordings during a word-reading task, of a group of children in grades 4 and 5 (ages 9–11), some of whom were dyslexic. We did this in order to characterize the differences in these dynamics between typical and dyslexic readers, and to begin to characterize the effect of a phonological intervention on those differences. Dyslexic readers were recorded both before and after they participated in a FastForWord (FFW) reading training program for approximately six months and typical readers were recorded once during this period. Before FFW dyslexic readers showed (i) a bottleneck in letter recognition areas, (ii) expansion in activity and connectivity into the right hemisphere not seen in typical readers, and (iii) greater engagement of higher-level language areas, even for consonant string stimuli. After FFW, dyslexic readers evinced a significant reduction in the engagement of language processing areas, and more activity and connectivity expanding to frontal areas, more resembling typical readers. Reduction of connectivity was negatively correlated with gains in reading performance, suggesting an increase in communication efficiency. Training appeared to improve the efficiency of the alternative (bilateral) pathways already used by the dyslexic readers, rather than inducing them to create

new pathways more similar to those employed by typical readers.

brain network dynamics is of most importance.

**Keywords:** dyslexia, EEG, interregional connectivity, oscillatory dynamics,

Having a reading disability, as seen in dyslexic children, is a very serious issue and often causes secondary emotional and cognitive consequences for the individual, as well as their family and their society [1]. Therefore, understanding the detailed underlying neurophysiological mechanisms of reading and their oscillatory

Given the prevalence of phonological deficits in people with dyslexia [2, 3], it follows that training in phonological processing (and the underlying auditory processing therein) should improve reading ability. Indeed, there is evidence supporting this idea although there is some disagreement in the literature. Training and remediation programs that emphasize phonics and phonemic awareness have

Dynamics in Dyslexic Children

*Nicolas Bedo, Dikla Ender-Fox, Janet Chow, Linda Siegel,* 

### **Chapter 2**
